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(1)– main clause

(2)- object subordinate clause (1st degree of subordination)

(3)- adverbial clause of time (2nd degree of subordination)

Pattern of syntactic analysis

(1) Of course, he read the reviews, (2) but he read summarily, without paying much attention, (3) till he came to the remarks (4) the critics made about him.

This is a compound-complex sentence. The independent clauses are: (1) “Of course, he read the reviews”… and (2) …"but he read summarily, without paying much attention

". They are linked by means of adversative coordination expressed by the conjunction but. The second independent clause has two subordinate clauses – (3) “…till he came to the remarks” (an adverbial clause of time, of the first degree of subordination, joined by means of the conjunction till) and (4) “…the critics made about him” (an attributive relative limiting clause of the second degree of subordination, joined asyndetically).

Study the graphical representation of this sentence structure:

3

4

1 & 2 – independent clauses connected by adversative conjunction but 3 – adverbial clause of time (1st degree of subordination)

4 – attributive relative limiting clause (2nd degree of subordination)

(1) The travelers were so tired (2) and the day was so gloomy (3) that there was no point in moving any further.

3

(1) No one can tell me, (2) nobody knows, (3) where the wind comes from, (4) where the wind goes.

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1& 2 – independent clauses (asyndetic connection)

3&4 – homogeneous object clauses (asyndetic connection)

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PUNCTUATION

Eight Basic Rules to Use a Comma

The tendency now in English is to use fewer commas than in the past. There is no one complete set of rules on which everyone agrees. There are four main ways to use a comma, as well as four other less important ways. If you memorize eight basic uses of the comma, you will be more confident and correct in your punctuation.

1. Use a comma to separate items in a series (to list more than two items). These items can be words, phrases, or clauses:

I was angry, fretful, and impatient.

NOTE:

A. A group of adjectives may not be regarded as a series if some of the words "go together":

I put on my old, dark blue coat.

I looked for my ring under the table, between the sofa cushions, and behind the TV-set. Last year he graduated from college, went into business, and he won the lottery.

B. The comma before and is optional, but most writers use it.

2.Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction to link two independent clauses (as a linker). The coordinating conjunctions are and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so.

The house was on fire, but I decided not to leave my shelter. The speaker rose to his feet, and the room became quiet.

3.Use a comma after introductory words, expressions, phrases, or clauses.

Yes, I agree with you on this issue.

In the long run, I made up my mind to quit the job. If you drop a line, your parents will be pleased.

NOTE:

A. Introductory words (such as yes, oh, no, well)

Oh, I never thought he would win.

B.Introductory expressions (such as a matter of fact, finally, secondly, consequently)

As a matter of fact, I'm not involved in this project.

C.Introductory phrases:

In the beginning of the year, he thought he would never cope with this task. Walking on tiptoe, I made my way for the exit.

To be quite honest, I don't believe in his power to change anything.

D. Introductory dependent clause beginning with a subordination conjunction: After the game was over, we all went for a drink.

4. Use a comma as an inserter. Put a comma on both sides of the inserted material if the word or group of words interrupts the main idea.

My grades, believe it or not, were the highest in the class. Ann, the girl with the braids, has a wicked sense of humour.

NOTE:

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If the inserted clause is not essential to the main idea of the sentence, use commas around it (relative non-defining clause).

If it is essential to the main idea, do not use commas (relative defining clause).

My sister, who wears braids, has a wicked sense of humour. The girl who wears braids is my sister.

5. Use commas with quotations:

My mother told me," Money does not grow on trees." "Let them," she said, "be on their own."

6. Use commas with dates, addresses, and direct address.

September 11, 2001, is the gravest day in the history of America.

We lived at 135 Hillcrest Road, Lake Avenue, Pennsylvania, before we moved to Florida.

I thought, James, that I saw your picture in the newspaper.

7. Use commas with numbers (of one thousand or larger):

The price of equipment was $ 1,238.

8. Use commas where it is necessary to prevent misunderstanding:

Before eating, the cat prowled through the barn. Whoever it is, is abound to be punished.

How to Use Other Marks of Punctuation

If you want to join two simple sentences that are related in their ideas and do not use a coordinating conjunction, you can combine them with a semicolon.

Three Uses of the Semicolon

1.To join two independent clauses whose ideas and sentence structure are related:

He decided to consult the map; she decided to ask the next pedestrian she saw.

2.To combine two sentences using an adverbial conjunction (conjunctive adverb).

Here is the generally accepted rule:

Put a comma after a conjunctive adverb if it is more than one syllable long.

I saw her rudeness to her parents; then I lost respect for her.

He decided to consult the map; however, she decided to ask the next pedestrian she saw.

Some Common Conjunctive Adverbs:

3. To separate items in a series when the items themselves contain commas:

I had lunch with Linda, my best friend; Mrs. Smith, my English teacher; and Jan, my sister-in-law.

Four Uses for the Colon

1. After a complete sentence when the material that follows is a list, an illustration, or an explanation:

A. a list:

Please order the following items: five dozens pencils, twenty rulers, and five rolls of tape.

Notice that in the sentence below, no colon is used because the sentence before the list is not complete.

The courses I am taking this semester are Freshman Composition, Introduction to Psychology, Art, and American Literature.

B. an explanation or illustration:

The room was in a mess: dirty clothes were piled on the chairs, wet towels were thrown on the floor, and an empty pizza box was tossed in the wastepaper basket. (In this sentence, all the words after the colon explain what the mess was like.)

2. For the salutation of a business letter:

To whom it may concern: Dear Madam President:

3. In telling time:

We will eat at 5:15.

4. Between the title and subtitle of a book:

Plain English Please: A Rhetoric

The Exclamation Mark:

The exclamation mark is used at the end of sentences that express strong emotion: Appropriate: You've won the lottery!

Inappropriate: We had a great time! (Great already implies excitement.)

Be careful not to overuse the exclamation mark. If your choice of words is descriptive, you should not have to rely on the exclamation mark for emphasis. Use it sparingly, for it is easy to rely on exclamation instead of using better vocabulary.

The Dash and Parentheses

Dash and parentheses can be used to show an interruption of the main idea. The particular form you choose depends on the degree of the interruption.

Use the dash for a less formal and more emphatic interruption of the main idea.

I picked up the crystal bowl carefully, cradled it in my arms, walked softy--and tripped, sending the bowl flying.

Use two dashes to set off dramatic words that interrupt a sentence.

She arrived--I know it for a fact--in a pink Cadillac.

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Use parentheses to insert extra information and afterthoughts. Such information is not emphasized.

Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) composed the "Preludes and Fugues". Her name (which I have just remembered) was Celestine.

NOTE: Commas in pairs, dashes in pairs, and parentheses are all used as inserters. They set off material that interrupts the flow of the sentence. The least dramatic and smoothest way to insert material is to use commas.

Four Uses for Quotation Marks

1. For a Direct Quotation:

"Please," I begged, "don't go away."

My mother told me, "There are plenty of fish in the sea." "I'm never going there again," said Irene.

If the quotation is not written as one unit, the punctuation changes:

"Stay away from that guy," my best friend warned me. "He will break your heart."

2. For material copied word for word from a source:

According to Science magazine, "In an academic achievement test given to 600 sixth graders in eight countries, U.S kids scored last in mathematics, sixth in science, and fourth in geography."

3. For titles of shorter works, such as short stories, an essay, a newspaper or magazine article, a poem or a song, chapters of books:

"A Modest proposal," an essay by Jonathan Swift, is a masterpiece of satire.

If you are writing the title of a longer book, movie, magazine, play, television show, underline the title or put in italics (in print):

Many famous short stories have first appeared in the New Yorker.

Many famous short stories have first appeared in the New Yorker.( in handwriting)

4. For words used in a special way:

When you said "never", did you mean it?

If you are using a quotation within a quotation, use single quotation marks:

My brother complained, "Every time we get in trouble, Mom has to say 'I told you so.' "

Ten Basic Rules for Capitalization

1. Capitalize the first word of every sentence.

Yesterday we saw our first soccer game.

2. Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation.

The teacher said, "You have been chosen for the part."

3. Capitalize the names of persons and the titles of persons. Proper names:

George Hendrickson

Professional titles when they are used with proper names;

I was a patient of Dr. Wilson. But: I was a patient of that doctor.

Term for a relative when it is used in the place of the proper name.

I told Grandfather I would meet him later.

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But: terms for relatives are not capitalized if a pronoun, article, or adjective is used with the name.

I told my grandfather I would meet him later.

4.Capitalize the names of specific things and places. Specific buildings:

I went to the Jamestown Post office. But: I went to the post office.

Specific streets, states, countries:

She lives on Park Avenue. But: She lives in the same street as my Mum and Dad.

Specific institutions:

The loan is from the First National Bank.

5.Capitalize days of the week, months of the year, and holidays. Do not capitalize the names of seasons.

The last Thursday in November is the Thanksgiving Day.

But: I cannot wait until spring.

6.Capitalize the names of all the languages, nationalities, races, religions, sacred terms.

My friend, who is Ethiopian, speaks very little English.

7.Capitalize the first word and every important word in a title. Do not capitalize articles, prepositions, or short connecting words in the title.

For Whom the Bell Tolls is a famous novel by Ernst Hemingway.

8.Capitalize historical events, periods, and documents.

The American Revolution, the Bill of Rights, the Colonial period

9. Capitalize the north, south east, and west when they are used as places rather than directions.

He comes from the Midwest.

But: The farm is about twenty miles west of the city.

10. Capitalize brand names.

Lipton's Noodle Soup But: noodle soup

A REVIEW OF THE METHODS FOR COMBINING SENTENCES AND CLAUSES

Coordination

Method I: Using a Comma with a Coordinating Conjunction

He cooked the dinner, and she washed the dishes.

Method II: Using a Semicolon between two simple sentences

Rain can be dangerous; it makes the roads slippery.

Method III: Using a semicolon and an adverbial conjunction:

My parents checked my homework every night; thus I did well at school. She gave me good advice; moreover, she was always ready to help.

(Put a comma after the conjunctive adverb if the conjunctive adverb is more than one syllable long.)

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Subordination

Method IV: Using a dependent Clause to Begin a Complex Sentence:

Because my car had a flat tire, I was late for work.

Method V: Using a Dependent Clause to End a Complex sentence:

I was late for work because my car had a flat tire.

Punctuating Relative Clauses (defining and non-defining)

Method VI: Relative Clauses that are essential to the meaning of the sentence do not require commas (Defining Relative Clause):

The poem that my classmate read in class was very powerful.

Method VII: Relative Clauses that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence require commas (Non-Defining Relative Clause)

Mother's fruit salad, which consisted of apples, grapes, and pears, was delicious.

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