Stella_Cottrell_Critical_Thinking_Skills_Deve

The sense this gives of a hollow argument is increased when one looks at t h e real reasons developed countries are jumpy about t h e Protocol - reluctance t o offend major fossil fuel companies. Fossil fuels are big business

i n many of the developed countries' economies a n d their power is such that they can influence politicians against ratifying the Protocol.' Some companies have even made the ludicrous suggestion1' that global warming is actually good for the planet!'? l4

Industry associations i n developed countries suggest that agreeing t o the Protocol would cost hundreds of thousands of jobsz2 and there would, therefore, be a very real impact o n national economies. However, objections go beyond these initial job losses. Not all developing

12False analogy. On the surface of it, this looks like a reasonable analogy, suggestive of hypocritical behaviour in both cases. However, it is a poor analogy because parents have a very different relationship with their children from that between developed and developing countries. Parents have a duty of care to protect their children, who are dependants, from the effects of their behaviour, whereas developing countries are independent entities who can make their own decisions. Furthermore, the issue between developed and developing countries described above is one of comoetition for a limited resource, which is not typically the case when parents wish to prevent children damaging their health.

7Assumption The author assumes that fossil fuel companies have this power but gives no evidence to support this.

17Emotive language is used in the phrase 'this is a ludicrous suggestion'.

7Assumption The author assumes that global warming cannot be good for the planet but gives no evidence to support this position.

14Complicity: the writing style here, and the use of an exclamation mark, suggests the author is making the audience feel they must agree, or else they might be considered 'ludicrous' too.

22Poor referencing. The author doesn't state which industry associations are referred to here. A reference for a trade association does appear in the references section, but it is not clearly linked to this statement.

nations are the same and whilst some are too poor to ever be serious competition to the developed countries, others like China or India are just waiting for a chance to take advantage of enforced reductions for developed countries so that they can supersede them as an economic power. Powerful oil companies are clearly anxious about any threat to their market and have a vested interest in making sure the Protocol is not ratified.16

Ultimately, countries' failure to address greenhouse gas emissions could mean that they shoot themselves in the foot. Long-term global warming is anticipated to cause significant climate changes and countries will have to contend with floods in their tourist centres and droughts in their wheat belts. However, given that neither of these consequences will have an impact o n powerful fossil fuel companies, developed countries can justify adopting this short-term strategy of protecting their interests.l The power of fossil fuel companies is such that they can influence developed countries not to sign up to the Protocol. Developed countries are susceptible to the influence of fossil fuel companies so if they are told not to sign up, they are likely to give way to that pressure.22 Given the impact this has on us all, this is obviously unacceptable.13 Everybody knows we are facing climatic meltdown.14 Global warming is a problem for all of us and people can't just opt out because it doesn't suit them.

References

1.United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. A Szlrnrnary of the Kyoto Protocol http://unfccc.int/essential~background(downloaded 13/02/05).

2.United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -Feeling the Heat

http://unfccc.int/essential-background (downloaded 13/02/05).

3. Stevens, W. K. (1997) 'Greenhouse Gas Issue Pits Third World Against Richer Nations'. New York Times, 30 November 1997.

4.AFL-CIO Executive Council (1998) Press Statement on the Kyoto Protocol, 30 January 1998.

16Unwarranted leap. The author uses a sleight of hand here. There is no evidence given to support the suggestion that developing countries intend to seize power or that fossil fuel companies are responding to this.

1False premise. The argument that fossil fuel companies would not be affected by floods or drought caused by climate change is based on a false premise. Both tourists and farmers are likely to be heavy consumers of fossil fuels, which would have a direct impact on fuel companies.

22Tautology.The two sentences here rephrase the same idea in different words. This produced unnecessary repetition without carrying the argument forward.

1 3 Deflection. The author uses the word 'obviously' to imply that the argument has been proved. As we have seen, this is not the case.

14Complicity. The statement 'everybody knows' puts the reader in a position that makes it more difficult to disagree with the argument. The author does this through use of language rather than through reasoning.

'Notions of a "Great Chain of Being" and of a natural order to the universe continued to exert ideological significance during the eighteenth century and beyond.' Discuss.

The idea of the 'Great Chain of Being' was common in medieval Europe. For those who believed in this chain, everything that existed belonged to a pre-assigned place, as if on higher or lower rungs of a ladder. Those lowest items in the universe were at the bottom of the chain whilst humans were nearer the top, below angels but above animals. In considering the influence of the chain of being in the eighteenth century, there are two aspects to consider. Firstly, whether the idea was still familiar in the eighteenth century, and secondly, whether it was used to support political or ideological positions in the important debates of the period.

First of all, it is proposed that the concept of the chain of being was very much alive in the eighteenth century. Such a view is not universally accepted. It has been argued that references to the chain of being had died out by the mid-seventeenth century (Barking, 1957; Madison, 1967). Madison claimed that such notions of the universe were replaced by more enlightened ideas based on scientific observation. It could also be argued that war and trade provided ever increasing opportunities for people to meet with new ideas and ideologies. Colley (2003), for example, refers to how impressed travellers to North African Muslim countries were by its culture and by the tolerance shown by Islam to other faiths. In earlier centuries, Christian rulers burnt people at the stake for expressing such sentiments but this was no longer the case in the eighteenth century.

However, despite such changes in people's outlook, old ideas still continued to hold sway. In the literature of the late eighteenth century, and even the early nineteenth century, it is not unusual to find references to the chain of being. Indeed, in an analysis of pamphlets produced in 1802-3, for example, Pendleton (1976) found that over one in ten pamphlets, a significant proportion, included a reference to the 'Chain of Being'. A much higher proportion of the pamphlets alluded to related concepts, such as the 'natural order' of society. The concept of the 'chain of being', and the idea that there was an inherent order to the universe, was still prevalent in England even in the early nineteenth century.

224 Critical Thinking Skills

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to the Laffer.Read to the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester at Different Meetings (Manchester: Literary and Philosophical Society).

Wollstonecraft, M. (1792) Vindication of t11eRights of Women. (Republished in 1975 by Penguin, Harmondsworth, Middlesex.)

Secondary sources

Barking, J. K. (1957) Changes iiz Conceptions of the Universe

(Cotteridge: Poltergeist Press)*.

Colley, L. (2003) Captives. Britain, Empire and the World

1600-1850 (London: Pimlico).

Madison, S. (1967) 'The End of the Chain of Being: the Impact of Descartian Philosophy on Medieval Conceptions of Being'. Jozrmal of Medieval and Enlightenment Shldies, 66, 7.*

Pendleton, G. (1976) 'English Conservative Propaganda During the French Revolution, 1780:1802' Ph.D. (unpub.), Emory University.

Thompson, E. P. (1963) The Making of the English Working Class (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin).

* These two sources are hypothetical and provided for the purpose of the practice activity; the other sources are genuine.

228 Critical Thinking Skills

Comments

O Stella Cottrell (ZOOS), Criticnl ThinkifzgSkills,

Palgrave Macmillan Ltd

The Great Chain of Being (Text 1)

'Notions of a "Creat Chain of Being" and of a natural order to the universe continued to exert ideological significance during the eighteenth century and beyond. 'Discuss.

The idea of the 'Great Chain of Being' was common in medieval Europe. For those who believed in this chain, everything that existed belonged to a pre-assigned place, as if on higher or lower rungs of a ladder. Those lowest items in the universe were at the bottom of the chain whilst humans were nearer the top, below angels but above animak8

Comments

Numbers in the text and below refer to the grid on p. 223.

8This is descriptive text that tells the reader, briefly, what the 'chain of being' was. This is necessary background information.

In considering the influence of the chain of being in the eighteenth century, there are two aspects to consider. Firstly, whether the idea was still familiar in the eighteenth century, and secondly, whether.it was used to support political or ideological positions in the important debates of the p e r i ~ d . ~

First of a1lI9it is proposed that the concept of the chain of being was very much alive in the eighteenth century.l Such a view is not universally accepted. It has been argued that references to the chain of being had died out by the mid-seventeenth century (Barking, 1957; Madison, 1967).Madison claimed that such notions of the universe were replaced by more enlightened ideas based on scientific observation.lO*l3 It could also be argued that war and trade provided ever increasing opportunities for people to meet with new ideas and ideologies. Colley (2003), for example, refers to how impressed travellers to North African Muslim countries were by its culture and by the tolerance shown by Islam to other faiths. In earlier centuries, Christian rulers burnt people at the stake for expressing such sentiments but this was no longer the case in the eighteenth century.l0, l3

However, despite such changes in people's outlook, old ideas still continued to hold sway.ll In the literature of the late eighteenth century, and even the early nineteenth century, it is not unusual to find references to the chain of being. Indeed, in an analysis of pamphlets produced in 1802-3, for example, Pendleton (1976) found that over one in ten pamphlets, a significant proportion, included a reference to the 'Chain of l3 A much higher proportion of the pamphlets alluded to related concepts, such as the 'natural order' of society. The concept of the 'chain of

O Stella Cottrell (2005),Critical Thinking Skills,

Palgrave Macm~llanLtd

2These two sentences set out how the author intends to approach the argument, breaking it into two sections to help the reader recognise these stages in the argument when they are introduced later.

9Signal word to introduce the first of the author's reasons.

1This sentence sums up the main argument.

10The author considers here counter arguments to the main line of reasoning. In this case, the counter arguments are raised and dealt with early in the line of reasoning as, if it was true that the idea had already died out, there wouldn't be much point continuing with the rest of the argument.

1 3 Examples of secondary sources (see p. 126 above).

11This paragraph addresses the counter argument raised by Barking that references to the chain of being had died out. The counter argument raised by Madison is addressed throughout the essay, and in a separate paragraph below.

7This evidence helps to support the overall conclusion that the idea did continue to have ideological significance.

13 Examples of a secondary sources (see p. 126 above).

Practice activities on longer texts 229

being' and the idea that there was an inherent order to the universe, was still prevalent in England even in the early nineteenth c e n t ~ r y . ~

As Pendleton's research indicates, there were still many publicists at the end of the eighteenth century who argued that the governing classes in England were a superior type of human being, higher o n the great chain of being and closer to God. Many of those in power believed that their own social class was more intelligent, more beautiful, with better morals. They regarded the majority of the population as less intelligent and virtuous, as uglier beings, closer t o an animal state, and therefore less deserving of consideration in a11 respects (Lavater, 1797).12People were expected t o 'know their place' and t o act accordingly at all times. This concept of beings o n a higher level of the chain was useful in providing a justification for social ~uperiority.~,

The hierarchical ordering of nature was also9 used t o provide a powerful defence of political and economic i n e q u a l i t i e ~ . ~In~ the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, very few people were allowed to vote in elections, to organise politically or even to speak out against those believed to be their 'betters'. The overwhelming majority of the population still did not

have the vote and there were vast differences in wealth, health, and well-being (Thompson, 1963). l3 The notion of a natural chain of being was used to argue that this was as nature or 'Providence' intended.

~ u r t h e r m o r eeven,~ after the eighteenth century, the hierarchical ordering of society was still presented as a divine plan, and all people were expected to follow the same religion. This idea of a divinely based order was used t o frighten people into s u b m i ~ s i o nA. ~broadside, or poster, pasted around London in 1802 declared that 'It is the ordinance of God, that there should be infinite gradations' and that 'as one star differeth from another star in glory, so shall the plan of subordination be through the whole earthly system.' 12, It was argued that it was natural for some people to have power and

Comments

6lntermediate conclusion used as a reason: the author establishes first that the notion of a 'great chain of being' was still current. The reasons to support this are:

it is not uncommon to find examples; Pendleton's research.

12 Primary source. See p. 126.

5 and 6 lntermediate conclusion used as a reason: the author has established the significance of the concept of the chain of being to maintaining the social structure. This then provides a reason that supports the overall conclusion that the concept is still of significance.

9Signal word used to indicate to the reader that the author is adding more reasons to support the line of reasoning.

5 and 6 lntermediate conclusion used as a reason: the author has established the significance of the concept of the chain of being to defending the political and economic status quo. This then provides a reason that supports the conclusion.

8Necessary but brief description of eighteenth-century society, to support the reasoning and to illustrate the significance of the political use of the concept of the chain of being.

13 Secondary source.

9Signal word to indicate the argument is continuing in a similar direction.

6lntermediate conclusion: the concept was used to rouse fear and submission.

12These are examples of primary source materials, see p. 126 above.

7Source materials used in this paragraph are used as evidence to support the conclusion that the concept had ideological significance.