!!Экзамен зачет 2023 год / The Law of Obligations

xxiv

Table of Contents

Page

II. Depositum..........................................................................

205

1. The nature of depositum; depositum miserabile ........

205

2.

The liability of the depositary......................................

208

(a) Dolus, culpa lata (and exceptions)........................

208

(b)

Diligentia quam in suis.........................................

210

(c) The development of diligentia quam in suis........

211

3.

The gratuitous nature of depositum ............................

213

4.

"Deposit" of immovables? ..........................................

214

5.

The depositum irrcgulare .............................................

215

(a) The problem of the deposit of money ................

215

(b)

Depositum and mutuum ......................................

216

(c) From condictio to actio depositi ..........................

217

6.

Conventional sequestration..........................................

219

III. Pignus..................................................................................

220

1.

The nature of pignus ...................................................

220

2.

The actio pigneraticia...................................................

221

(a)

The formula in factum concepta...........................

221

(b)

The formula in ius concepta ................................

222

3.

The consequences of non-redemption of the pledge

223

4.

The liability of the pledgee..........................................

225

5.

The actio pigneraticia contraria ...................................

227

CHAPTER 8 — EMPTIO VENDITIO I

I. The Binding Nature of Consensual Sale......................

230

1.

Consensus.....................................................................

230

2.

The question of arrha ..................................................

230

(a)

Arrha confirmatoria..............................................

230

(b)

Greek arrha ...........................................................

231

(c)

Post-classical arrha ...............................................

232

(d)

Argumcntum emptionis contractae or arrha

poenitentialis?........................................................

233

3.

The essentialia negotii..................................................

234

II. The Possible Objects of a Contract of Sale...................

234

1. Demarcating the areas of emptio venditio and locatio

conductio ......................................................................

234

2.

Generic sales .................................................................

236

(a) The Roman rule and its origin ............................

236

(b) Generic sale and sale of specific goods ................

238

(c) The double function of the contract of sale........

239

3.

The sale of non-existing objects..................................

240

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Page

4.

The sale of res extra commerciurn or of a free man. .

241

(a) Res publicae, res divini iuris and the liber homo

241

(b)

The availability of the actio empti ..........................

241

(c)

Culpa in contrahendo ................................................

244

5.

Ernptio rei speratae and ernptio spei ..............................

245

(a)

Emptio rei speratae....................................................

245

(b)

Emptio spei and its viability ....................................

246

(c)

".

. . quasi alca emitur" ..........................................

248

III. The Purchase Price.................................................................

250

1.

Did the purchase price have to consist in money? . . .

250

(a)

The Sabinian view .....................................................

250

(b)

The Proculian view ...................................................

251

(c)

Sale and exchange ......................................................

251

2.

Pretium verum ...................................................................

252

3.

Pretium certum ..................................................................

253

(a)

Borderline cases .........................................................

253

(b) Determination of the price at a later stage............

254

4.

Pretium iustum ..................................................................

255

(a)

The Roman attitude ..................................................

255

(b)

Invicem se circumscribere ........................................

256

(c)

Private autonomy ......................................................

258

5.

Laesio enormis and equality in exchange.......................

259

(a)

C. 4, 44, 2...................................................................

259

(b)

Extension of С 4, 44, 2...........................................

262

(c)

Consequential problems...........................................

263

(d) The problem of establishing the iustum pretium

264

(e)

The abolition of laesio enormis ...............................

267

(f)

Equality in exchange today .....................................

268

C HAPTER 9 — EMPTIO VENDITIO II

I. The Passing of Ownership ..................................................

271

1.

The relationship between contract of sale and transfer

of ownership.......................................................................

271

2.

The payment of the purchase price ................................

272

(a)

hist. II, 1, 41 ...............................................................

272

(b)

Pre-classical, classical and post-classical law..........

274

(c)

Pactum reservati dominii .........................................

276

II. The Duties of the Parties ......................................................

277

1.

The duties of the purchaser .............................................

277

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2.

The duties of the vendor..................................................

278

(a)

Uti frui habere possidereque licerc.........................

278

(b)

Transfer of ownership?.............................................

278

(c)

Practical implications.................................................

279

(d) The liability of the vendor.......................................

280

III. The Passing of the Risk ........................................................

281

1.

Periculum est emptoris .....................................................

281

2.

The position in classical law ............................................

282

3.

The ambit of the rule .......................................................

283

4.

Excursus: the sale of wine................................................

284

5.

The concept of periculum ................................................

287

6.

Afr. D. 19, 2, 33 et al.: evidence against periculum

emptoris? .............................................................................

288

7.

Evaluation of the Roman risk rule.................................

290

8.

Reception and rejection of periculum est emptoris .. .

291

CHAPTER 10 — EMPTIO VENDITIO III

I.

Liability for Eviction .............................................................

293

1.

Warranty of peaceable possession ..................................

293

2.

Liability under the actio auctontatis ...............................

294

3.

Liability under a stipulatio duplae...................................

295

4.

Liability under the actio empti ........................................

296

(a)

"Emptorem duplam promitti a venditore

oportet".......................................................................

296

(b) Liability for the "positive interest" ........................

298

5.

The position under Justinian............................................

300

6.

The determination of quod interest ...............................

301

7.

Roman-Dutch and modern German law ......................

302

II.

Liability for Latent Defects ................................................

305

1.

Introduction........................................................................

305

(a) The remedies: Roman tradition and natural law.

305

(b)

The implied conditions of the Sale of Goods Act

306

(c)

Caveat emptor ...........................................................

307

2.

Early remedies....................................................................

308

3. Liability for dolus and dicta in venditione ....................

308

4.

Liability arising from specific promissa.........................

310

5.

The aedilitian remedies.....................................................

311

(a) The sale of slaves.......................................................

311

(h)

Morbus and vitiurn ...................................................

311

(c)

Defects of character ..................................................

314

(d)

Dicta promissave .......................................................

315

(c)

"Redhibendi ludicium" ............................................

316

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xxvii

(f)

Page

The actio rcdhibitoria ...............................................

317

(g) The actio quanti minoris; the sale "sub corona" 318

(h)

The sale of iumenta ...................................................

318

6.

Extended liability under the actio empti........................

319

(a) Pomp. D. 19, 1, 6, 4 and other texts ....................

320

(b)

Reception of the aedilitian principles into the ius

(c)

civile.............................................................................

321

The position under Justinian ...................................

322

7.

Actio empti and aedilitian remedies in the ius

commune ............................................................................

322

(a)

"Miretur vero aliquis, cur Aediles introduxerunt

actiones." .............................................................................

322

(b)

Merging the remedies...............................................

323

(c)

The scope of application of the actio redhibitoria

325

(d)

Excursus: Special rules relating to the sale of

(c)

cattle ............................................................................

326

Modern German law ................................................

327

(f)

The system of remedies in Roman-Dutch law . .

328

(g)

Phamc v. Paizes .........................................................

329

8.

Mortuus redhibetur ...........................................................

330

(a) The problem of the impossibility of restoration

330

(b)

The fiction of "mortuus redhibetur" and prob

lems arising therefrom..............................................

331

9.

Once again: "Si vas" (Pomp. D. 19, 1, 6, 4) ..............

334

(a) The development of the "Pothicr" rule ................

334

(b)

The English Sale of Goods Act...............................

336

C H APT E R 11 — LOCATIO CONDUCTIO I

I. Locatio Conductio in General ............................................

338

1.

Locare and conducere .......................................................

338

2.

Three in one .......................................................................

339

3.

Historical development.....................................................

340

II. The Social and Economic Framework of Lease ...........

342

1. The quest for security of tenure .....................................

342

2.

Living conditions in Rome ..............................................

344

3.

Some typical problems.....................................................

347

4. The Roman lawyers and the law of lease ......................

348

5. Legal rules and extra-legal restrictions ..........................

350

III. Locatio Conductio Rei .........................................................

351

1.

The nature of lease ............................................................

351

2.

The objects of lease ...........................................................

351

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3.

Merces locationis..........................................................

353

(a)

Merces vera et certa..............................................

353

(b)

Pecunia numerata? ................................................

354

4.

Leases for a fixed term.................................................

355

(a) Lustrum; ius repellendi and ius migrandi............

355

(b)

Relocatio tacita......................................................

356

5.

Leases for an indefinite period.....................................

357

6.

Leases in perpetuity .....................................................

358

7.

The duties of the locator .............................................

360

8.

The range of the lessor's liability ................................

360

(a)

Prevention of frui licere........................................

360

(b)

Choosing unsuitable slaves ...................................

361

(c)

Defect of title........................................................

362

(d)

Publicatio ..............................................................

363

(e) Leaky vats and toxic plants..................................

365

(f) From Ulp. D. 19, 2, 19, 1 to § 583 BGB ............

367

9.

The problem of risk.....................................................

369

(a)

Periculum locatoris...............................................

369

(b)

Remissio mercedis ................................................

371

10.

The duties of the conductor ........................................

374

(a) Payment of rent, cultivation; the standard of care

374

(b)

Vicarious liability? ................................................

376

11.

The position of the lessee ............................................

377

(a) His protection against the lessor ..........................

377

(b)

Alienation of the leased property by the lessor..

378

(c)

Emptio tollit locatum...........................................

379

(d)

D. 43, 16, 12 in fine.............................................

380

(e)

Huur gaat voor koop ...........................................

381

12.

Towards security of tenure .........................................

382

CHAPTER 12 — LOCATIO CONDUCTIO 11

I. Locatio Conductio Operarum ........................................

384

1. Essential elements of Roman "labour law".................

384

(a)

Locare conducere..................................................

384

(b)

Esscntialia negotii; periculum conductors..........

384

(c)

Imperitia culpae adnumeratur ..............................

386

2. The range of application of locatio conductio oper

arum ............................................................................

387

(a)

Status relationships...............................................

387

(b)

Trie artes liberales.................................................

388

(c) The value of "labour" in Roman society ...........

389

(d) Common law (ius civile) and employment rela

tionships ...............................................................

391

(e) The contribution of Roman law ..........................

392

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xxix

II. Locatio Conductio Operis

Page

393

1. Essential characteristics and range of application..........

393

2.

Problems of classification .................................................

394

3.

Range of liability of the conductor ................................

397

(a)

Impcntia and custodia ..............................................

397

(h) Gai. D. 19, 2, 25, 7 and the problem of vicarious

liability ........................................................................

399

4.

The problem of risk allocation ........................................

401

(a)

Periculum conductoris..............................................

401

(b) Equitable distribution of the risks..........................

402

5.

Adprobatio operis ............................................................

404

6.

Lex Rhodia de iactu ..........................................................

406

(a) The reception of the lex Rhodia into Roman law

406

(b) Subsequent history of the lex Rhodia ....................

409

CHAPTER 13 — MANDATUM

1. The essential characteristics of mandatum .....................

413

2.

The gratuitousness of mandatum ...................................

415

(a)

Officium et amicitia..................................................

415

(b)

Pay merit of an honorarium .....................................

415

(c)

С 4, 35, 1 ..................................................................

416

(d)

Receipt of a salarium ................................................

416

(e)

Mandatum nisi gratuitum nullum: the ius com

mune ...........................................................................

418

3. The range of application of mandatum ...........................

420

(a)

Factual and contractual activities of the manda-

(b)

tarius.............................................................................

420

Illegal and immoral mandates; the mandatum tua

(c)

tantum gratia ..............................................................

421

Types of mandate according to the interest

involved .......................................................................

422

4.

Mandatum morte solvitur ................................................

424

5.

The liability of the mandatarius .......................................

426

(a) Dolus or dolus and culpa?........................................

426

(b)

Terminological problems .........................................

427

(c)

Altruistic and not so altruistic mandatarii .............

427

(d)

Mandatum: between suretyship and procuratio .

428

(e)

Spondet diligentiam et mdustriam negotio ger-

endo parem .................................................................

429

6. The liability of the mandator...........................................

430

(a)

Utility considerations ................................................

430

(b)

Casus a nullo praestantur .........................................

430

(c)

The ius commune ......................................................

431

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C HAPTER 14 — NEGOTIORUM GESTIO

1.

Negotiorum gestio and mandatum ...............................

433

(a)

Similarities..................................................................

433

(b)

Difference...................................................................

433

2. The value basis of negotiorum gestio ...........................

435

3.

The history of negotiorum gestio in Roman law . . . .

436

4.

The range of application of negotiorum gestio ...........

438

5. Requirements of the actio negotiorum gestorum . . . .

440

(a)

'Taking care" of a "negotium" "for another" . .

440

(b)

Animus negotia aliena gerendi? ..............................

441

(c)

Utilitas gestionis ........................................................

442

6.

The actio negotiorum gestorum contraria....................

443

(a)

Its importance today.................................................

443

(h)

Remuneration of services rendered? ......................

444

7.

The standard of liability of the gestor............................

445

(a)

The position ot the gestor.......................................

445

(b)

Pomp. D. 3, 5, 10 and Ulp. D. 3, 5, 3, 9 ............

446

8.

Negotiorum gestio in modern law .................................

447

(a)

Evaluation of negotiorum gestio in German law

447

(b)

The individualistic approach of the common law

448

(c)

Rescue cases ...............................................................

449

CHAPTER 15 — SOCIETAS

I. Rom an Law .............................................................................

451

1.

The nature of societas ......................................................

451

2.

Evolution of the contract of societas .............................

451

(a)

Erctum non citum ....................................................

451

(b)

Pre-classical consortium and classical societas ...

452

3.

Basic features of classical societas ...................................

454

4.

Termination of the societas .............................................

455

(a)

Renuntiatio, mors socii, insolvency.......................

455

(b)

The bringing of an actio pro socio ........................

457

5.

Freedom of contract and its limitation..........................

457

(a)

The allocation of shares in profits and losses. . . .

457

(b)

The societas leonina..................................................

459

6.

The actio pro socio ...........................................................

460

7.

Liability between the partners ........................................

461

(a)

The problem of contribution ..................................

461

(b)

Dolus liability ............................................................

462

(c)

Extension: culpa lata, diligentia quam in suis,

culpa ............................................................................

462

(d)

Custodia and imperitia .............................................

464

8.

Creation and partition of joint ownership ....................

465

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xxxi

Developm ents ..........................................................................

466

1.

Liability between socii ......................................................

466

2.

The societas and third parties ..........................................

467

(a)

Socii venaliciani, actiones adiecticiac qualitatis

(b)

and societates publicanorum ...................................

467

Societas and agency...................................................

468

3.

The actio pro socio............................................................

470

4. The "community of collective hand"............................

471

5.

South African law of partnership ...................................

472

(a)

Sources ........................................................................

472

(b)

General features .........................................................

474

CHAPTER 16 — DONATIO

1.

Introduction ........................................................................

477

(a) Promises of gifts and executed gifts......................

477

(b)

R easons for policing the transfer of gratuitous

(c)

benefits ........................................................................

477

Conceptual problems ................................................

478

2.

The concept of donation in classical Roman law .........

479

(a) Donatio and the contractual scheme .....................

479

(b)

The executed gift ......................................................

480

(c) The prevailing attitude towards donations ..........

481

3.

The lex Cincia de muneribus ..........................................

482

(a) Purpose and background of the enactment ...........

482

(b) The application of the lex Cincia...........................

483

4.

The prohibition of donationes inter virum et uxorem

484

(a) Origin and purpose of the prohibition..................

484

(b)

Purity of marriage ....................................................

487

(c) The application of the prohibition ..........................

488

5.

The law of donation under Constantmc.........................

490

(a) Promotion of acts of generosity ............................

490

(b)

Formalities..................................................................

492

(c) Donations and dispositions mortis causa ...............

493

6.

Justinian and the law of donations..................................

494

(a) Donation as a binding contract ..............................

494

(b)

Enter the cheerful giver ...........................................

496

(c)

Revocation of donations ...........................................

497

7.

Donation under the ius commune and in modern law

498

(a)

The concept of donation; insinuatio actis .............

498

(b)

Restrictive policies in France ...................................

500

(c) German law: form and definition of donation. ..

501

(d) Absence of agrced-upon recompense .....................

503

(e)

English law: the doctrine o{ consideration ...........

504

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Table of Contents

C HAPTER 17 — PACTA AND INNOMINATE REAL

Page

C O NTR AC T S

I.

Pacta in General .....................................................................

508

1.

Nuda pactio obligationem non parit .............................

508

2.

Pacta ex continent! adiecta ...............................................

509

II.

Pacta Praetoria ........................................................................

511

1.

Constitutum debiti............................................................

511

(a) The actio de pecunia constituta ..............................

511

(b)

Constitutum debiti alieni ........................................

512

(c)

Constitutum debiti proprii ......................................

512

2.

Receptum arbitri................................................................

513

3.

Receptum argentarii..........................................................

514

4.

Receptum nautarum cauponum stabulariorum .............

514

(a) Actio dc rcccpto; custodia liability .........................

514

(b)

The reasons for the actio de recepto .....................

515

(c)

Actio de recepto and special delictual actions -----

517

(d)

Actio de recepto and actio locati............................

517

(e)

From accidentale to naturale negotii .....................

519

(f)

The receptum in modern law .................................

520

(g)

Range of application.................................................

521

(h) The liability of common carriers ...........................

523

(i) Range of liability under the ius commune ...........

524

III. Pacta Legitim a: Com promissum as Example ...............

526

1.

Classical and post-classical compromissum ..................

526

2.

The compromissum of the ius commune......................

528

3.

Arbiter, arbitrator and amicabilis compositor ..............

528

IV. Combined Transactions: Hire-purchase in Roman

Law

.............................................................................................

530

V.

Innom inate Real Contracts .................................................

532

1.

Permutatio and the rise of actiones praescriptis verbis

532

2.

Range of transactions .......................................................

534

3.

Aestimatum ........................................................................

535

4.

Innominate contracts and the contractual scheme------

536

VI. Towards a General Law of Contract Based on

Consent ......................................................................................

537

1.

Contract and pacta in the Corpus Juris Civilis.............

537

2.

Pacta vestita and pacta nuda ...........................................

538

3.

The contribution of (commercial) practice....................

540

4.

The contribution of the canon lawyers .........................

542

5.

The position of the natural lawyers; summary ............

544

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xxxiii

Commune ...........................................................................

S46

1. From contract vcrbis to contract littcris ......................

546

2.

Ex nudo pacto oritur actio and the form of stipulation

547

II. The Doctrine of Causa .....................................................

549

1. Ex nudo pacto oritur actio and the notion of causa . .

549

2.

Causa in Roman law ....................................................

549

3.

The scholastic doctrine of causation.............................

551

4.

Causa as an extra piece of "garment" .........................

551

5.

The decline of causa .....................................................

553

6.

Causa and consideration in English law......................

554

7.

Causa and consideration in South African law ...........

556

(a) The reception of the consideration doctrine ........

556

(b)

Iusta causa and Grotius' notion of "redcheke

oorzaecke" .............................................................

557

III. Consensus ...........................................................................

559

1. Consent as the basis of contract in modern law .........

559

2.

The Roman contribution .............................................

561

(a)

Conceptual analysis in general ............................

561

(b)

Contractus .............................................................

562

(c)

Pacta ......................................................................

562

(d)

Conventio..............................................................

563

(e)

Consensus..............................................................

563

3.

Conventio, pactum and contractus under the ius

commune ......................................................................

565

4.

Domat and Pothier.......................................................

566

5.

Grotius, Pufendorf and Wolff .....................................

567

6.

Formation of contract in English law..........................

569

(a) England and continental legal science ..................

569

(b)

The analysis of contract........................................

571

7.

Contract and polhcitatio...............................................

572

(a)

From promise to contract ....................................

572

(b)

The smoke ball case..............................................

573

(c)

"Aushbung" and pollicitatio .................................

573

(d) Pollicitatio and contractual liability .....................

575

IV. Pacta Sunt Servanda .........................................................

576

1.

Pacta sunt servanda and classical contract doctrine...

576

2.

The right of unilateral withdrawal from a contract ..

578

3.

Clausula rebus sic stantibus..........................................

579

(a) Origin and development of the clausula .............

579

(b)

The clausula from the 17th century to today ___

581