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(17)Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, Rome, 4 November 1950; Protocol to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, Paris, 20 March 1952. Cf eg case 10/1993/405/483–484 Holy Monasteries v Greece; for an overview of relevant case law, see Barbara Mensah, European Human Rights Case Summaries 1960–2000 (2000). See also Jan-Peter Loof and Hendrik Ploeger, The Right to Property: The Influence of Article 1 Protocol no. 1 ECHR on Several Fields of Domestic Law (2000).

(18)J. A. Pye (Oxford) Ltd v the United Kingdom (Application no 44302/02), to be found on the website of the European Court of Human Rights: <http:// www.echr.coe.int/echr>.

(19)See the Abolition of Feudal Tenure etc (Scotland) Act, 2000, Acts

of the Scottish Parliament 5, and the information on the website of the Law Commission for England and Wales: <http://www.lawcom.gov.uk/ feudal.htm>.

(20)See, for the Netherlands, Hoge Raad, 25 January 1929, Nederlandse Jurisprudentie 1929, 616. Under the new Civil Code such a transfer of ownership for security purposes is no longer allowed, although it can

be argued that under the pressure of European private law Dutch law has had to re-accept this type of transfer. See Directive 2002/47/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 June 2002 on financial

collateral arrangements, [2002] OJ L 168/43–50. In English law the problems concerning the use of inventory and claims as non-possessory security were solved through the introduction of the so-called ‘floating charge’ in the case

In re Panama, New Zealand, and Australian Royal Mail Company, (1870) LR 5 Ch App 318.

(21)Section 1 Law of Property Act 1925.

(22)cf Manfred Wolf, ‘Beständigkeit und Wandel im Sachenrecht’, [1987] Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 2647 ff; Wolfgang Wiegand, ‘Die Entwicklung des Sachenrechts im Verhältnis zum Schuldrecht’, (1990) 190 Archiv für die civilistische Praxis 112 ff. See also Vincent Sagaert, ‘Les interférences entre le droit des biens et le droit des obligations: Analyse de Iʼévolution depuis le Code civil’, in Patrick Wery (ed), Le droit des obligations contractuelles et le bicentenaire du Code civil (2004), 353 ff.

(23)It may also be argued that a right erga omnes is the sum total of personal rights that, for example, the owner has against everyone. Cf Wesley

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Newcomb Hohfeld, Fundamental Legal Conceptions as Applied in Judicial Reasoning and Other Legal Essays (ed Walter Wheeler Cook, 1923). For a civilian analysis from the point of view of legal relationships, cf Friedrich Carl von Savigny, System des heutigen Römischen Rechts (vol I, 1840), 6 ff.

(24)See eg § 566 BGB (referring to the lease of residential space); Art 7:226 BW (also referring to movables); for the historical background, see Reinhard Zimmermann, The Law of Obligations: Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition (paperback edn, 1996), 377 ff.

(25)See Arts 6:251 and 252 BW.

(26)cf Arts 5:70 ff BW. Contrary to servitudes (which only become binding after registration), a qualitative duty is immediately binding between the parties.

(27)The right to own a building on land that is owned by someone else.

(28)A long lease of land.

(29)Caquelard v Lemoine, 13. 2. 1834; D 1834, I, 218, S. 34, 1. 205.

(30)BGH, 24 June 1958, BGHZ 28, 16.

(31)Rose v Watson (1864) 10 HLC 672. Cf The Law Reform Commission of Ireland (LRC 49–1995), Interests of Vendor and Purchaser in Land during the Period between Contract and Completion (1995), to be found at: <http:// www.lawreform.ie/>.

(32)Arts 5:85 ff BW.

(33)See also the recent developments in Scots law, as laid down in the Title Conditions (Scotland) Act 2003, 2003 Acts of the Scottish Parliament 9, especially s 76.

(34)This may also, in the future, be allowed in French law; see the

Proposition de loi instituant la fiducie, no. 178, Sénat, Session ordinaire de 2004–5, Annexe au procés-verbal de la séance du 8 février 2005, présentée

par M. Philippe Marini, Sénateur.

(35) See, for the bundle of rights theory, Hohfeld (n 23).

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(36)Co-ownership is an entirely different matter. In such a situation the co-owners share full ownership rights. However, the object of their right of ownership is an object that belongs to both of them.

(37)cf Wolfgang Wiegand, ‘Numerus clausus der dinglichen Rechte: Zur Entstehung und Bedeutung eines zentralen zivilrechtlichen Dogmas’, in

Wege europäischer Rechtsgeschichte: Festschrift für Karl Kroeschell (1987), 623 ff.

(38)Friedrich Carl von Savigny, System des heutigen Römischen Rechts (vol VIII, 1849).

(39)See eg Wouter Snijders, ‘Ongeregeldheden in het vermogensrecht’, (2005) Weekblad voor Privaatrecht, Notariaat en Registratie 6607, 79ff and Weekblad voor Privaatrecht, Notariaat en Registratie 6608, 94 ft.

(40)Land Registration Act 2002 Chapter 9.

(41)Frederick H. Lawson and Bernard Rudden, The Law of Property (2002), 79 ft.

(42)See the information on the website of the Law Commission for England and Wales: <http://www.lawcom.gov.uk/feudal.htm>.

(43)Abolition of Feudal Tenure etc (Scotland) Act 2000 (n 19).

(44)See Henri Basnage, Oeuvres de maitre Henri Basnage: ecuyer, seigneur

du Franquesnei, avocat au Parlement, contenant ses commentaires sur la coutume de Normandie, et son traité des hypothèques (4th edn, 1778); and see the Privy Council Decision in Snell v Beadle (né Silcock) 2001 Jersey Law Reports 118.

(45)I cannot discuss here the ongoing debate concerning the so-called ‘fusion’ of common law and Equity. It does, however, seem correct to say that common law and Equity can be seen as subsystems (constitutive elements) of an overarching legal system.

(46)cf L. P. W. van Vliet, Transfer of Movables in German, French, English and Dutch Law (2000).

(47)See van Vliet (n 46), 91.

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(48)Thomas W. Merrill and Henry E. Smith, ‘Optimal Standardization in the Law of Property: The Numerus Clausus Principle’, (2000) 110 Yale LJ 1; Henry Hansmann and Reinier H. Kraakman, ‘Property, Contract, and Verification: The Numerus Clausus Problem and the Divisibility of Rights’, (2002) 31 The Journal of Legal Studies 373; Henry E. Smith, ‘Property and Property Rules’, (2004) 79 New York University LR 1719.

(49)See for the mixed jurisdiction of South Africa, Marius J. de Waal, ‘Identifying Real Rights in South African Law: The “Subtraction from the Dominium” Test and its Application’, in S. E. Bartels and J. M. Milo (eds),

Contents of Real Rights (2004), 83–98.

(50)The Treaty was signed at Washington, London, Moscow, 27 January 1967.

(51)Charles A. Reich, ‘The New Property’, (1964) 73 Yale LJ 733.

(52)Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, signed in Kyoto on 11 December 1997. The treaty is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992). As to European Union law, see Directive 2003/87/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 October 2003 establishing a scheme for greenhouse gas emission allowance trading within the Community and amending Council Directive 96/61/EC, [2003] OJ L 275/32.

(53)Article 3(a) of Directive 2003/87/EC.

(54)BGH, 29 March 2001, BGHZ 147, 193; Hoge Raad, 29 October 2004, Nederlandse Jurisprudentie 2006, 203.

(55)ALI, Restatement of the Law Third, Property, Servitudes (vols I and II, 2000).

(56)For the Netherlands, see Aart A. van Velten, ‘Het zakenrechtelijk

statuut van nutsleidingen in het Nederlandse recht’, [2004] Tijdschrift voor Privaatrecht 1407 ff.

(57)UNIDROIT Cape Town Convention on International Interests in Mobile Equipment (Cape Town, 2001).

(58)The model can be found on the website of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development: <http://www.ebrd.org/>.

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(59)cf for the Wiederkehr der Rechtsfiguren (return of legal models) Wiegand, (1990) 190 Archiv für die civilistische Praxis 112, 132; Theo MayerMaly, ‘DieWiederkehr von Rechtsfiguren’, [1971] Juristenzeitung 1 ff; for the Netherlands, cf already J. P. A. Coopmans, Renaissance van oud recht (1965). With regard to the (renewed) acceptance of general security interests, reference can be made to the ten core principles for a secured transactions law, to be found on the website of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (n 58).

(60)See the report by the Forum Group on Mortgage Credit, The Integration of the EU Mortgage Credit Markets (2004) and, recently, the Green Paper, Mortgage Credit in the EU (presented by the European Commission), Brussels, 19.7.2005, COM (2005) 327 final, to be found at: <http:// europa.eu.int/prelex/apcnet.cfm?CL=en>.

(61)Groupe de travail relatif à la réforme du droit des sûretés, Rapport

à Monsieur Dominique Perben, Garde des Sceaux, Ministre de la Justice and Avant-projet de texte issu du rapport Grimaldi (2005), to be found at: <http://www.justice.gouv.fr/publicat/rapport/rapportgrimaldi.htm>. By

Ordonnance no. 2006–346 du 23 mars 2006 relative aux sûretés, published in the Journal Officiel no. 71 of 24 March 2006, this non-accessory mortgage has now been introduced in French law.

(62)See, for more information, <http://europa.eu.int/comm/consumers/ index_en.htm>.

(63)cf the paper published recently by Abraham Bell and Gideon Parchomovsky, ‘Of Property and Federalism’ (Bar-Ilan University Faculty of Law, Interdisciplinary Program for Law, Rationality, Ethics and Social Justice, Working Paper No. 06–85, and University of Pennsylvania Law School, Institute for Law and Economics, Research Paper No. 05–12), te be found at the webiste of the Social Science Research Network: <http:// papers.ssm.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=709321>.

(64)See the European Land Information Service (EULIS) project: <http:// www.eulis.org>. Cf Sergio Camara-Lapuente, ‘Registration of Interests as a Formality of Contracts: Comparative Remarks on Land Registers within the Frame of European Private Law’, (2005) 13 European Review of Private Law 797–839.

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