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The second part is software — the programs that control and coordinate the activities of the computer hardware and that direct the processing of data.

For the computer system to operate, computer programs are required. A computer program is a set of instructions for the CPU. These instructions tell the CPU where to find the input data in the system. The CPU is also instructed how to process the data and where to put the results. Programs are not hardware, as they have no electrical or mechanical components. They can be easily changed according to the needs of the user.

Computer software can be divided into two very broad categories — system software and application software.

Unit 5

Read the text:

Computer Security

Computer security is an application of information security to both theoretical and actual computer systems. For sake of simplicity, issues regarding privacy should be handled under the subject of information privacy rights.computer security is a branch of computer science that addresses enforcement of “secure” behavior on the operation of computers.

The term “computer security” is used very frequently, but the content of a computer is vulnerable to several risks unless the computer is connected to other computers to form a network. As the use of computer networks, especially the Internet, has become widely spread, the concept of computer security has expanded to signify issues relating to the networked use of computers and their resources.

The major technical areas of computer security are usually rep storage devices presented by the initials CIA: Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability. Confidentiality means that information cannot be accessed by unauthorized parties; secrecy or privacy; breaches of confidentiality range from the embarrassing to the disastrous. Integrity means that information is protected against unauthorized changes that are not detectable to authorized users; many incidents of hacking compromise the integrity of database and other resources. Availability means that resources are accessible by authorized parties.

Privacy is perhaps the most important aspect of computer security for everyday Internet users. Although these people may feel that they have nothing to hide when they are registering with an Internet site or service, privacy on the Internet is about protecting one’s personal information, even if the information does not seem sensitive.

The traditional approach is to create a trusted security kernel that exploits special-purpose hardware mechanisms in the microprocessor to constrain the operating system and the application programs to conform to the security policy. These systems can isolate processes and data to specific domains and restrict access and privileges of users. This approach avoids trusting most of the operating system and applications.

In addition to restricting actions to a secure subset, a secure system should still permit authorized users to carry out legitimate and useful tasks. It might be possible to secure a computer against misuse using extreme measures:

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“The only truly secure system is one that is powered off, cast in a block of concrete and sealed in a lead-lined room with armed guards — and even then I have my doubts. ” (Eugene H. Spafford, director of the Purdue Center for Education and Research in Information Assurance and Security)

Assignments:

I.General understanding. Answer the questions:

1.What is the term of computer security?

2.What do confidentiality, integrity, and availability mean in terms of PC security?

3.What is the most important aspect of computer security nowadays?

4.What is the gist of the traditional approach security?

5.Comment upon Eugene H. Spafford’s words.

II. Translate these phrases from Russian into English:

Вычислительная, компьютерная сеть; подчиняться политике безопасности; неавторизованные абоненты; у меня нет сомнений; традиционный подход; право на неприкосновенность личной жизни; крайние меры; запоминающее устройство; сдерживать операционную систему; сетевое использование.

III.Put the words in the correct order to make up sentences. Then translate them:

1.that, authorized, accessible, resources, parties, means, are, availability, by.

2.has, Internet, the, become, widely, networks, computer, especially, of, the, use, spread.

3.secure, is, the, truly, is, one, that, off, system, powered, only.

4.specific, users, these, can, processes, restrict, data, to, and, access, and, isolate, privileges, of, systems, domains, and.

IV. 1) Some technical words in English begin or end with common affixes. Knowing the meaning of the affix can help you work out the meaning of the whole world. Study the examples from this table:

2) Using the table, work out the words which have the following meanings:

1.a phone without a cord;

2.a very small processor;

3.concrete which has been stressed earlier;

4.medicine at a distance;

5.a very small electronic chip;

6.a computer much more powerful than ordinary computers;

7.a plastic containing many molecules of carbon.

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3) Fill in the sentences (column A) with the prefixes (column B):

V. Webquest. 1) Find out about the five fastest supercomputers in the world and complete the table.compare your answers with other students:

2) This site may help: http://www.top500.org/

VI. Render this text in English:

Компьютерный интерфейс

Ответьте себе на вопрос: каким образом происходит ваше взаимодействие с компьютером? Вы думаете над тем, что хотите сделать. Затем, используя мышь и клавиатуру (реже — джойстик), выполняете необходимые действия мускульным движением рук. Но не кажется ли вам, что было бы проще дать команду компьютеру голосом или, того лучше, мозговым импульсом. И это не фантастика — компьютеры научатся адекватно распознавать голоса в ближайшие 5 лет (проблема лишь в отсутствии оптимального алгоритма распознавания голоса и недостаточной вычислительной мощности), а воспринимать импульсы мозга — через 10 лет. Уже сегодня в продаже можно найти экзотический прибор OCZ NIA, который является прообразом интерфейса будущего. С помощью NIA можно управлять движением курсора мыши при помощи импульсов головного мозга. Однако конструкция настолько несовершенна, что на ее усвоение у вас может уйти едва ли не больше времени, чем на полное изучение Большой Советской энциклопедии. В будущем планируется сделать более точный прибор, способный лучше улавливать электрические импульсы, направляемые головным мозгом человека и адекватнее их распознавать.

“S7”

Use the words and phrases given below:

Техника — hardware; взаимодействие — interaction; джойстик — joystick; мускульное движение рук — muscular manipulation; дать команду компьютеру голосом — give the order to the computer by the voice; мозговой импульс — brain impulse; распознавать голоса — identify voices; прообраз интерфейса — interface prototype; курсор мыши — mouse pointer; несовершенныйimperfect; улавливать (понимать) — catch.

VII.1) Discuss in groups or prepare individual comments on these predictions about technology. Give reasons to support your ideas.

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2) Decide together which predictions you accept.

1.Tiny robots will be injected into our bodies to deliver medicine and to perform surgery from the inside.

2.Planes will be controlled by computers which think like humans and are therefore afraid to crash.

3.Cars will automatically drive at safe speeds and safe distances from each other.

4.You will be able to download your brain to a computer before you die.

5.Business will be carried out in 3-D virtual space, not in offices.

6.Jobs like teaching children or nursing will continue to be done by people, but most other jobs will be done by robots and computers.

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PART VI. GRAPHS

Unit 1

Describing Graphs (Part I)

I. In engineering, graphs and charts are a common way of giving information. They allow a great deal of data to be presented easily in visual form.

Match the following graphic displays with the correct term from the list:

Repairs in the first four years (per 100 machines)

II. 1) Study the graph below (Fig. 1.5) which shows typical daily load curves for a power station.

2) Describe changes in load for these time periods:

1.Between 6 and 10;

2.Between 18 and 22;

3.Between 2 and 6.

Fig. 1.5. Typical daily load curves for a power station

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Describing Graphs

Look at the time period from 6 to 10 (Fig. 1.5). We can describe the change in load in two ways:

1.The load rises.

2.There is a rise in load.

We can make our description more accurate like this:

3.The road rises sharply.

4.There is a sharp rise in load.

III. 1) Study this table of verbs and related nouns of change. The past form of irregular verbs is given in brackets:

2) These adjectives and adverbs are used to describe the rate of change:

IV. Looking at the graphs complete the tables with the words given:

The temperature

Fig. 1.6

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V. 1) Study the diagram below (Fig. 1.9) which shows how tensile strength, hardness, and ductility vary with the percentage of carbon in carbon steels.

2) Answer these questions:

1.What is a high carbon steel?

2.How much carbon does tool steels contain?

3.Compare the properties of mild steel and hard steel.

4.What kind of steel is tin plate made from?

5.What kind of steel are car springs made from?

Tensile strength

Fig. 1.9. Properties and applications of carbon steels

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Unit 2

Describing Graphs (Part II)

I.Look at the graph in Fig. 2.1. Answer the following questions:

1.What is the topic of the graph?

2.What does the horizontal (X) axis represent?

3.What are the figures on the vertical (Y) axis?

4.What were the most important sources of energy?

5.Why are 1978 and 1983 significant?

6.What do you notice about alternative sources of energy?

7.Which source of energy grew significantly after 1970?

Fig. 2.1. World Energy Consumption

II.1) Read the description of the graph in Fig. 2.1.

2)After reading answer the questions:

1.What is the purpose of the first sentence?

2.What is the purpose of the second sentence?

3.Which words have a meaning similar to approximately?

The graph in Fig. 2.1 shows how much energy from different sources was used between 1950 and 2005. We can see that over this period the amount of energy used increased sharply and the largest amount of energy came from petroleum. In 1950 just over 13,000 million billion Joules was used but this figure rose sharply to reach a peak of roughly 40,000 million billion Joules in 1978. There was a dramatic fall to just over 30,000 million billion in the following five years before rising rapidly to reach 42. 000 million billion Joules by 2005. The second and third largest sources of energy were natural gas and coal, which each accounted for about 25,000 million billion Joules in 2005. The graph shows that insignificant amounts of energy came from renewable sources during this time, but there was a growth in the amount of nuclear electric power after 1970, reaching approximately 8,000 million billion Joules in 2005. The fall in energy consumption in the years around 1980 was probably due to the world oil crisis.

III. Use expressions given below to write a description of the graph in Fig. 2.2. In your first sentence describe what the graph is about by using the title, X, and Y axis. In the second sentence give an overview of the trends shown in the graph. Then describe the graph in more detail. Write 80–100 words.

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