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8. Впишите указанные выше области применения геодезических данных в соответствии с описаниями.

__________: It is well understood that there is a need for an areal network of appropriately distributed points (geodetic control) of known horizontal and vertical positions for the production of maps ranging from small scale maps of entire countries to large scale maps used by municipalities. The establishment of this control is clearly an important geodetic task.

__________: In the urban environment, the locations of man's creations, such as underground utilities, must be defined and documented for future reference.

__________: During the building of large structures, such as dams, bridges and factories, it is necessary to lay out the various components of these structures in predeterminated locations. For this purpose, coordinates of one kind or another are used, so the availability of control points is naturally desirable. As well, it is often necessary to know the movements of the ground and water levels prior to, during and after the construction. In the case of dams, water tunnels, irrigation projects and the like, the exact shape of the equipotential surfaces of the gravity field should be known. The determination of the movements and the shape of the equipotential surfaces are also geodetic undertakings.

__________: The rigorous definition of international and intranational (provincial or state) boundaries is of paramount importance. Emphasis has also recently been placed on speedy and accurate description of oil and gas leases, even in such remote and inhospitable parts of the world as the Arctic, the North Sea and various continental shelves. The positioning and staking out of these boundaries is most economically done by relating them to a framework of points with known horizontal coordinates - the geodetic network.

__________: It has been realized in the past few decades that it is necessary to study the effects of human actions on environment. One such effect is the movement of the ground caused by the removal of underground resources

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(including water, oil and minerals) or subsurface disposal of wastes. The detection and monitoring of these movements is a geodetic problem.

__________: It has been recognized that the establishment of the environmental data banks, to serve as integrated information systems for transportation, land use, community and social services, land titles extracts, assessment of tax data and population statistics, should be based on land parcels whose locations are uniquely defined in terms of coordinates. Again, it is advisable that these coordinates be referred to a geodetic network.

__________: All the positional needed in geography is provided by geodesy. Even though the accuracy of positional and other geometrical information used by geographers is generally much lower than that needed in the fields described above, this information is a global character that only geodesy can satisfy.

__________: It can be argued that this is a part of either astronomy or geophysics. Be that as it may, planetology uses methods for studying the geometry, gravity fields and deformations of planets that are identical with the extraterrestrial methods used in geodesy. Thus, practically all of geodesy is applicable to planetology. Because of this special affinity between planetology and geodesy, some geodesists regard the determination of the shape and size of planets and their gravity fields as part of geodesy.

__________: Some consider this field to be a part of oceanography, while others make it a special (marine) branch of surveying; either way, it has a somewhat special relation with geodesy. It may be understood as the practice of positioning at sea, combined with depth sounding, and, as such, applies many geodetic methods.

9.Работайте в парах. Спросите вашего партнера, как та или иная наука использует геодезические данные.

10.Коммуникативное задание. Вам предстоит участвовать в конференции по теме «The greatest geodesist in the world».

А. Как докладчик подготовьте сообщение о вкладе в развитие геодезии

одного из перечисленных ниже ученых.

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Б. Как участник конференции задайте выступающим интересующие вас вопросы.

В. Как председатель составьте программу конференции и проведите

ее.

1.Johann Jacob Baeyer 1794–1885, (Germany)

2.Alexander Ross Clarke, London (England)

3.Heinrich Bruns 1848–1919, Berlin (Germany)

4.Loránd Eötvös 1848–1919 (Hungary)

5.Eratosthenes, Alexandria (Greece & Egypt)

6.Hervé Faye 1814–1902 (France)

7.Carl Friedrich Gauß 1777–1855, Göttinge

8.Heinrich Bruns 1848–1919, Berlin (Germany)

9.Carl Friedrich Gauß 1777–1855 (Germany)

10.Hervé Faye 1814–1902 (France)

11.Christiaan Huygens 1629–1695 (Netherlands)

12.Jean Henri Lambert 1728–1777 (France)

13.Adrien Marie Legendre 1752–1833 (France)

14.Charles S. Peirce 1839–1914 (United States)

15.Harold Jeffreys, London (England)

16.W. Bowie 1872–1940 (USA)

17.Henri Poincaré, Paris (France)

18.Friedrich Hopfner, Vienna (Austria)

19.Hellmut Schmid, (Switzerland)

20.Mikhail Sergeevich Molodenskii, 1909–1991 (Russia)

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8.1.Surveying and Its History

Since the beginning of recorded history, people have needed to measure and map their world. Surveying techniques have existed throughout much of recorded history. In ancient Egypt, when the Nile River overflowed its banks and washed out farm boundaries, boundaries were re-established through the application of simple geometry. The nearly perfect squareness and north-south orientation of the Great Pyramid of Giza, built c. 2700 BC, affirm the Egyptians' command of surveying.

Under the Romans, land surveyors were established as a profession, and they established the basic measurements under which the Roman Empire was divided, such as a tax register of conquered lands (300 AD).

The rise of the Caliphate led to extensive surveying throughout the Arab Empire. Arabic surveyors invented a variety of specialized instruments for surveying, including:

Instruments for accurate levelling: A wooden board with a plumb line and two hooks, an equilateral triangle with a plumb line and two hooks, and a reed level.

A rotating alidade, used for accurate alignment.

A surveying astrolabe used for alignment, measuring angles, triangulation, finding the width of a river, and the distance between two points separated by an impassable obstruction.

In many senses, surveying of the past was skills based. Good surveyors could measure well and compute well. The past achievements are impressive, particularly given the living conditions and technical limitations.

Viewed in the large surveying is the technique and science of accurately determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional space position of points and the distances and angles between them. These points are usually, but not exclusively, associated with positions on the surface of the Earth, and are often used to establish land maps and boundaries for ownership or governmental purposes. In order to

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accomplish their objective, surveyors use elements of geometry, engineering, trigonometry, mathematics, physics, and law.

What do a murder, an earthquake, a satellite and a «for sale» sign have in common?

Modern surveyors help police at crime scenes, they predict earthquakes, they use computer imaging and satellites to monitor environmental change, they map the ocean floor – they are women and men – and of course, they tell you where your land ends and your neighbour’s begins. They also get great money and travel the world.

Surveyors are the professional experts in land measurement, information and management. Modern surveyors are well educated. They enter the profession with a degree, and frequently a double degree, masters or PhD.

Areas of increasing importance are the creation and management of spatial data, and the application of that data. Interestingly, geodesy which played a key role in the past remains important because of the increased application of satellite systems such as GPS.

The modern surveyor is confronted with the introduction of new and powerful technology including scanning technology, both terrestrial and airborne, satellites that produce high-resolution images, and increasing numbers of satellites dedicated to positioning on earth. Surveyors must quickly come to terms with each new technology’s potential if they are to employ them effectively.

Increasingly government is recognizing the economic importance of the spatial industry in which surveyors work, its potential to expand locally and to produce export opportunities.

Surveyors of the future will more likely be employed in the private sector than government. They will work in teams with other professionals. They will also find it easier to diversify their careers because the basic spatial concepts they learn at university and in their careers have wide application.

In short, the future is bright. Those wishing to follow the traditional fieldsurveying path still can. However there now many more opportunities.

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Activities

1.Прочитайте текст и назовите основные этапы развития маркшейдерского дела.

2.Прочитайте текст и скажите, сколько логически оформленных частей в нем можно выделить. Озаглавьте каждую часть. Выпишите основные термины.

3. Найдите в тексте соответствующие английские слова и выражения: землемер, горизонтальная съемка, линия отвеса,

равносторонний треугольник, угломер с уровнем, выравнивание, место совершения преступления, сухопутный, измерять углы, применять спутниковые системы, перпендикулярность сторон, пространственные координаты, сталкиваться с, принять условия.

4. Прочитайте текст и выпишите ключевые слова, характеризующие тему «Surveying».

5.Прочитайте текст и выпишите все глаголы, отражающие круг должностных обязанностей маркшейдера.

6.Прочитайте текст и приведите аргументы, доказывающие тезис

«The future for Surveyors is bright».

7.Попросите партнера ответить на вопросы:

1.What is surveying aimed at?

2.What sciences is surveying related with?

3.What are surveyors responsible for?

4.Where did surveying begin?

5.What tasks did the early surveyors perform?

6.When was surveying established as a profession?

7.Where was the first surveying equipment invented?

8.What tool was used for leveling?

9.What was an astrolabe used for?

10.What qualification requirements make people possible to get into surveying? 11.What areas increase the surveying importance?

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12.What technologies do surveyors use in their work?

13.What do you think why surveyors of the future will be more likely employed in the private sector?

8. Опираясь на выписанные в задании 5 глаголы, кратко охарактеризуйте работы, выполняемые специалистом-маркшейдером.

8.2. Surveying Equipment and Technologies

Modern surveying is witnessing an explosion in high-tech data management. Job opportunities are booming.

In the past surveyors used relatively simple technologies. That has now all changed.

The theodolite has been regarded as the symbol of a surveyor. It has now developed to become a total station, capable of doing its own calculations, storing the data collected, and measuring distances as well as angles. Some are even robotic; they don’t require an operator near them. The humble dumpy level’s modern equivalent is a digital level that automatically reads a specially calibrated staff. Computer Aided Drawing (CAD) has replaced hand drawing

Impressive as they are, these are merely developments along a traditional theme. Today’s surveyors use exciting new technologies.

GPS, a satellite based position system, has come of age. Surveyors use it for everything. New and better satellites are becoming available, and new constellations of satellites are planned. The general public is also using GPS, and the surveyor’s knowledge and skills are of great value in explaining the application of this technology.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are computer systems that turn spatial data into information. This is also mature technology. Surveyors supply the data for these systems, and also operate and manage them.

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Surveyors often get key information such as survey mark information, titles, and GPS base station data from the Web. Use of the Web by surveyors is increasing. And technology continues to produce exciting new developments.

Scanning technology collects millions of points and uses them to build computer models of complex objects. Used on the ground, this technology is finding application in producing models of objects such as building facades or oil distilleries. Used from an aeroplane, it can produce Digital Elevation Models (DEM), provide estimates of biomass or measure the ground clearance of power lines.

Satellites are producing better quality images with resolutions now of about 1 metre. These provide the opportunity to more effectively carry out current tasks, or to do things that could not previously be done.

Acronyms such as WAP and phases such as "location based services" are now emerging. The surveyor has a role in these areas. What it will be is up to us to define. However, surveyors will continue to encounter exciting new technological opportunities.

Activities

1. Прочитайте текст и выпишите к словам Equipment и Technologies

все поясняющие их определения.

2.Прочитайте текст и скажите, что является символом специалиста-маркшейдера. Как вы думаете, почему?

3.Прочитайте текст и запишите названия технологий, используемых

вмаркшейдерском деле, и цель их применения. Занесите информацию в таблицу.

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4.Опираясь на данные таблицы, сделайте краткое выступление о технологиях, используемых в маркшейдерском деле.

5.Найдите соответствия английских и русских словосочетаний:

6.Попросите партнера ответить на вопросы?

1.What is a symbol of a surveyor?

2.What are new technical specifications of an advanced theodolite?

3.What technology has replaced drawing?

4.What is GIS used for?

5.Why do surveyors use Web more and more?

6.What are the application areas of scanning technology?

7.What are the advantages of satellites?

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