- •Preface
- •Acknowledgments
- •1 Introduction
- •The land and its water
- •Climate and vegetation
- •Lower Palaeolithic (ca. 1,000,000–250,000 BC)
- •Middle Palaeolithic (ca. 250,000–45,000 BC)
- •Upper Palaeolithic and Epipalaeolithic (ca. 45,000–9600 BC)
- •Rock art and ritual
- •The Neolithic: A synergy of plants, animals, and people
- •New perspectives on the Neolithic from Turkey
- •Beginnings of sedentary life
- •Southeastern Anatolia
- •North of the Taurus Mountains
- •Ritual, art, and temples
- •Southeastern Anatolia
- •Central Anatolia
- •Contact and exchange: The obsidian trade
- •Stoneworking technologies and crafts
- •Concluding remarks
- •Pottery Neolithic (ca. 7000–6000 BC)
- •Houses and ritual
- •Southeastern Anatolia and Cilicia
- •Central Anatolia
- •Western Anatolia and the Aegean coast
- •Northwest Anatolia
- •Seeing red
- •Invention of pottery
- •Cilicia and the southeast
- •Western Anatolia
- •Northwest Anatolia
- •Other crafts and technology
- •Economy
- •Concluding remarks on the Ceramic Neolithic
- •Spread of farming into Europe
- •Early and Middle Chalcolithic (ca. 6000–4000 BC)
- •Regional variations
- •Eastern Anatolia
- •The central plateau
- •Western Anatolia
- •Northwest Anatolia
- •Metallurgy
- •Late Chalcolithic (ca. 4000–3100 BC)
- •Euphrates area and southeastern Anatolia
- •Late Chalcolithic 1 and 2 (LC 1–2): 4300–3650 BC
- •Late Chalcolithic 3 (LC 3): 3650–3450 BC
- •Late Chalcolithic 4 (LC 4): 3450–3250 BC
- •Late Chalcolithic 5 (LC 5): 3250–3000/2950 BC
- •Eastern Highlands
- •Western Anatolia
- •Northwestern Anatolia and the Pontic Zone
- •Central Anatolia
- •Early Bronze Age (ca. 3100–2000 BC)
- •Cities, centers, and villages
- •Regional survey
- •Southeast Anatolia
- •East-central Anatolia (Turkish Upper Euphrates)
- •Eastern Anatolia
- •Western Anatolia
- •Central Anatolia
- •Cilicia
- •Metallurgy and its impact
- •Wool, milk, traction, and mobility: Secondary products revolution
- •Burial customs
- •The Karum Kanesh and the Assyrian trading network
- •Middle Bronze Age city-states of the Anatolian plateau
- •Central Anatolian material culture of the Middle Bronze Age
- •Indo-Europeans in Anatolia and the origins of the Hittites
- •Middle Bronze Age Anatolia beyond the horizons of literacy
- •The end of the trading colony period
- •The rediscovery of the Hittites
- •Historical outline
- •The imperial capital
- •Hittite sites in the empire’s heartland
- •Hittite architectural sculpture and rock reliefs
- •Hittite glyptic and minor arts
- •The concept of an Iron Age
- •Assyria and the history of the Neo-Hittite principalities
- •Key Neo-Hittite sites
- •Carchemish
- •Zincirli
- •Karatepe
- •Land of Tabal
- •Early Urartu, Nairi, and Biainili
- •Historical developments in imperial Biainili, the Kingdom of Van
- •Fortresses, settlements, and architectural practices
- •Smaller artefacts and decorative arts
- •Bronzes
- •Stone reliefs
- •Seals and seal impressions
- •Urartian religion and cultic activities
- •Demise
- •The Trojan War as prelude
- •The Aegean coast
- •The Phrygians
- •The Lydians
- •The Achaemenid conquest and its antecedents
- •Bibliography
- •Index
ANCIENT TURKEY
Students of antiquity often see ancient Turkey as a bewildering array of cultural complexes. Ancient Turkey brings together in a coherent account the diverse and often fragmented evidence, both archaeological and textual, that forms the basis of our knowledge of the development of Anatolia from the earliest arrivals to the end of the Iron Age.
Much new material has recently been excavated and unlike Greece, Mesopotamia, and its other neighbors, Turkey has been poorly served in terms of comprehensive, contemporary and accessible discussions of its ancient past. Ancient Turkey is a much needed resource for students and scholars, providing an up-to-date account of the widespread and extensive archaeological activity in Turkey.
Covering the entire span before the Classical period, fully illustrated with over 160 images and written in lively prose, this text will be enjoyed by anyone interested in the archaeology and early history of Turkey and the ancient Near East.
Antonio Sagona is Professor of Archaeology at the University of Melbourne. He is an elected Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries (London) and the Australian Academy of Humanities, and has carried out fieldwork in Turkey, the Caucasus, Syria, and Australia.
Paul Zimansky is Professor of Archaeology and Ancient History at the State University of New York, Stony Brook. He has excavated in Iraq, Iran, Syria, and Turkey. His academic specialties are Hittite and Urartian cultures, early cities, and the archaeology of writing.
Routledge World Archaeology
Forthcoming:
Prehistoric Britain, 2nd edition, Timothy C. Darvill
ANCIENT TURKEY
Antonio Sagona and Paul Zimansky
First published 2009 by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge
270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2009 Antonio Sagona and Paul Zimansky
Typeset in Sabon by
RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk
Printed and bound in Great Britain by
MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested
ISBN: 978–0–415–48123–6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978–0–415–28916–0 (hbk)
ISBN: 978–0–203–88046–0 (ebk)
CONTENTS
Preface |
ix |
Acknowledgments |
xi |
1 Introduction |
1 |
The land and its water |
2 |
Climate and vegetation |
5 |
2 Earliest arrivals: The Palaeolithic and Epipalaeolithic (1,000,000–9600 BC) |
10 |
Lower Palaeolithic (ca. 1,000,000–250,000 BC) |
12 |
Middle Palaeolithic (ca. 250,000–45,000 BC) |
19 |
Upper Palaeolithic and Epipalaeolithic (ca. 45,000–9600 BC) |
21 |
Rock art and ritual |
27 |
3 A new social order: Pre-Pottery Neolithic (9600–7000 BC) |
37 |
The Neolithic: A synergy of plants, animals, and people |
38 |
New perspectives on the Neolithic from Turkey |
41 |
Beginnings of sedentary life |
44 |
Origin of the village |
46 |
Southeastern Anatolia |
49 |
North of the Taurus Mountains |
54 |
Ritual, art, and temples |
57 |
Southeastern Anatolia |
57 |
Central Anatolia |
64 |
Economy |
65 |
Contact and exchange: The obsidian trade |
69 |
Stoneworking technologies and crafts |
74 |
Collapse of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic |
76 |
Concluding remarks |
78 |
v
C O N T E N T S |
|
4 Anatolia transformed: From Pottery Neolithic through Middle Chalcolithic |
|
(7000–4000 BC) |
82 |
Pottery Neolithic (ca. 7000–6000 BC) |
83 |
Houses and ritual |
83 |
Southeastern Anatolia and Cilicia |
83 |
Central Anatolia |
85 |
Western Anatolia and the Aegean coast |
99 |
Northwest Anatolia |
103 |
Seeing red |
107 |
Invention of pottery |
109 |
Cilicia and the southeast |
111 |
Central Anatolia |
112 |
Western Anatolia |
113 |
Northwest Anatolia |
115 |
Other crafts and technology |
118 |
Economy |
119 |
Concluding remarks on the Ceramic Neolithic |
121 |
Spread of farming into Europe |
122 |
Early and Middle Chalcolithic (ca. 6000–4000 BC) |
124 |
Regional variations |
125 |
Eastern Anatolia |
125 |
The central plateau |
127 |
Western Anatolia |
130 |
Northwest Anatolia |
136 |
Metallurgy |
139 |
5 Metalsmiths and migrants: Late Chalcolithic and the Early Bronze Age |
|
(ca. 4000–2000 BC) |
144 |
Late Chalcolithic (ca. 4000–3100 BC) |
145 |
Euphrates area and southeastern Anatolia |
145 |
Late Chalcolithic 1 and 2 (LC 1–2): 4300–3650 BC |
149 |
Late Chalcolithic 3 (LC 3): 3650–3450 BC |
150 |
Late Chalcolithic 4 (LC 4): 3450–3250 BC |
153 |
Late Chalcolithic 5 (LC 5): 3250–3000/2950 BC |
155 |
Eastern Highlands |
163 |
Western Anatolia |
168 |
Northwestern Anatolia and the Pontic Zone |
170 |
Central Anatolia |
170 |
Early Bronze Age (ca. 3100–2000 BC) |
172 |
Cities, centers, and villages |
174 |
vi
C O N T E N T S |
|
Regional survey |
178 |
Southeast Anatolia |
178 |
East-central Anatolia (Turkish Upper Euphrates) |
182 |
Eastern Anatolia |
187 |
Western Anatolia |
191 |
Central Anatolia |
198 |
Cilicia |
199 |
Metallurgy and its impact |
200 |
Wool, milk, traction, and mobility: Secondary products revolution |
210 |
Burial customs |
212 |
6 Foreign merchants and native states: Middle Bronze Age (2000–1650 BC) |
225 |
The Karum Kanesh and the Assyrian trading network |
227 |
Middle Bronze Age city-states of the Anatolian plateau |
234 |
Central Anatolian material culture of the Middle Bronze Age |
240 |
Indo-Europeans in Anatolia and the origins of the Hittites |
244 |
Middle Bronze Age Anatolia beyond the horizons of literacy |
247 |
The end of the trading colony period |
248 |
7 Anatolia’s empire: Hittite domination and the Late Bronze Age (1650–1200 BC) |
253 |
The rediscovery of the Hittites |
253 |
Historical outline |
259 |
The imperial capital |
266 |
Hittite sites in the empire’s heartland |
273 |
Yazılıkaya and Hittite religion |
276 |
Hittite architectural sculpture and rock reliefs |
280 |
Hittite glyptic and minor arts |
283 |
Fringes of empire: Hittite archaeology beyond the plateau |
284 |
8 Legacy of the Hittites: Southern Anatolia in the Iron Age (1200–600 BC) |
291 |
The concept of an Iron Age |
292 |
Assyria and the history of the Neo-Hittite principalities |
294 |
Key Neo-Hittite sites |
297 |
Carchemish |
299 |
Malatya |
302 |
Ain Dara |
304 |
Zincirli |
307 |
Karatepe |
309 |
Land of Tabal |
312 |
9 A kingdom of fortresses: Urartu and eastern Anatolia in the Iron Age (1200–600 BC) |
316 |
Early Urartu, Nairi, and Biainili |
317 |
Historical developments in imperial Biainili, the Kingdom of Van |
321 |
vii
C O N T E N T S |
|
Fortresses, settlements, and architectural practices |
331 |
Smaller artefacts and decorative arts |
335 |
Bronzes |
336 |
Stone reliefs |
338 |
Seals and seal impressions |
338 |
Language and writing in Urartu |
339 |
Urartian religion and cultic activities |
342 |
Demise |
344 |
10 New cultures in the west: The Aegean coast, Phrygia, and Lydia (1200–550 BC) |
348 |
The Trojan War as prelude |
348 |
The Aegean coast |
351 |
The Phrygians |
352 |
The Lydians |
362 |
The Achaemenid conquest and its antecedents |
367 |
Bibliography |
373 |
Index |
408 |
viii
PREFACE
This book was written because of the continuing dearth of general, accessible, and up-to-date surveys on ancient Turkey before the Classical period. While there are a number of excellent periodand site-specific works, students and teachers have faced the persistent difficulty of reading and synthesizing an enormous and often bewildering amount of literature before they can formulate a general narrative on the principal periods and areas of innovation and culture. The task of covering in one volume so vast a topic—from the earliest arrivals to the end of the Iron Age—is daunting to say the least, but we have decided to take the plunge and divided the task between us: AS is responsible for the periods up to the end of the third millennium BC (Chapters 1–5), whereas PZ continues the story to the arrival of Persian influence at the end of the Iron Age (Chapters 6–10). This exposition makes no claim to be comprehensive, neither is it a detailed narrative. Rather, we hope that it provides a readable and well-balanced book for those who wish to understand the main cultural expressions of Turkey’s ancient past. Hence, it would be pedantic and uncalled for to load the text with the heavy apparatus of scholarship. Nonetheless, we hope that the references provided will enable the curious to make their own way into the various topics.
Anyone who writes a book as wide ranging as this, ventures, often with trepidation, into areas outside their comfort zone. We have been fortunate and grateful that many friends and colleagues have helped us during the writing and preparation of this book, and, although we cannot mention them all, we are sincerely grateful to them. The debts we have incurred are many and range from permission to reproduce photographs and drawings (even though not all were used owing to limitations of space), through providing information on topics less familiar to us, to sustained conversations over many years. All these played an important part in shaping this book and accordingly we would like to express our sincere gratitude to the following: Mikheil Abramishvili, Guillermo Algaze, Ruben Badalyan, Nur Balkan-Altı, Scott Branting, Charles Burney, Stuart Campbell, Elizabeth Carter, Özlem Çevik, Altan Çilingirog˘ lu, Simon Connor, Ben Claasz Coockson, S¸ evket Dönmez, Bleda Düring, Refik Duru, Turan Efe, Aslı Erim-Özdog˘ an, Marcella Frangipane, David French, Christoph Gerber, Savas¸ Harmankaya, Ömür Harmans¸ah, Harald Hauptmann, Ian Hodder,
˙
Mehmet Isikl¸ ı, Peter Jablonka, John Kappelman, Kakha Kakhiani, Steve Kuhn, Clemens Lichter, Catherine Marro, Timothy Matney, Roger Matthews, Marcel Otte, Mihriban Özbas¸aran, Mehmet Özdog˘ an, Aynur Özfırat, Vecihi Özkaya, Aliye Öztan, Giulio Palumbi, Anneliese PeschlowBindokat, Jacob Roodenberg, Christopher Roosevelt, Michael Rosenberg, Mitchell Rothman, Curtis
ix
P R E FA C E
Runnels, Claudia Sagona, Oya Sarı, Klaus Schmidt, Ulf-Dietrich Schoop, Veli Sevin, Ludovic Slimak, Sharon Steadman, Gil Stein, Françoise and Geoffrey Summers, Mary Voigt, and Aslıhan Yener. We are very appreciative to the staff of various museums in Turkey, too many to list here, for their support over the years in allowing us to study material held in their collections.
Special thanks are owed to Sharon Steadman, Mary Voigt and Aslıhan Yener, who generously made available to AS papers in advance of their publication, a gesture for which he is most grateful. Among those who read and commented on various parts in draft, providing excellent advice and counsel, we thank Claudia Sagona, Caroline Spry, and Elizabeth Stone. We would also like to thank the cohorts of students, who, over the years, have acted as sounding boards for our formative ideas. Their questions and insightful comments have helped to sharpen our focus.
In a book of this type, images are immensely important. Three individuals have played a key role in standardizing, adapting, and redrawing the illustrations:
•Claudia Sagona spent many hours preparing the drawings and photographs for Chapters 1–5, and many more again reformatting them as AS changed his mind, often on a regular basis
•Chandra Jayasuriya drew the illuminating maps, and we are grateful for her care and professionalism
•Elizabeth Stone created almost all of the plans in Chapters 6–10 and several of the line drawings, taking time off from her own work on Iraq and remote sensing to apply her considerable graphic skills to the illustrations.
To the staff at Routledge, we extend our thanks for their patience and understanding in the long gestation of this book. AS would like to thank the University of Melbourne for financial support and research leave, especially in 2007, which enabled him to undertake the writing of his chapters. We also acknowledge with gratitude that the publication of this work was assisted by a publication grant from the University of Melbourne.
Finally, we must express the huge debt of appreciation we owe to our wives, Claudia Sagona and Elizabeth Stone, for their constant support.
Antonio Sagona University of Melbourne
Paul Zimansky
Stony Brook University, NY
x
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful to the following individuals, publishers, journals and institutions that have given permission for their illustrations to be used here in exactly the same form as the original; other persons and publications are acknowledged separately in the captions.
Front cover: Hirmer Verlag (Munich)
Figs 2.3 and 5: Otte, M., Yalçınkaya, I., Tas¸kıran, H., Kozlowski, J. K., Bar-Yosef, O., and Noiret, P. (1995c) The Anatolian Middle Paleolithic: new research at Karain Cave, Journal of Anthropological Research 51: 287–299, figs 3–5
Fig. 2.6: Reprinted with permission of Wiley-Liss, Inc., a subsidiary of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., from Kuhn, S. L. (2002) Paleolithic archaeology in Turkey, Evolutionary Anthropology 11: figs 5–6
Fig. 2.9: Reproduced courtesy of Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten from Rosenberg, M. (1994) Hallan Çemi Tepesi: Some further observations concerning stratigraphy and material culture, Anatolica 20, fig. 13; Rosenberg, M. and Peasnell, B. (1998) A report on soundings at Demirköy, an aceramic Neolithic site in eastern Anatolia, Anatolica 24: figs 4–5
Fig. 2.11: 1–2: Otte, M., Yalçınkaya, I., Leotard, J.-M., Kartal, M., Bar-Yosef, O., Kozlowski, J., Bayon, I. L., and Marshack, A. (1995a) The epi-Palaeolithic of Öküzini cave (SW Anatolia) and its mobiliary art, Antiquity 69: 931–944
Fig. 3.8: 3: Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Orientabteilung, Urfa-Projekt
Figs 4.6; 4.7: 1, 4; 4.8: 3–4; 4.16: 1: Reproduced courtesy of the British Institute at Ankara from Mellaart, J. (1963) Excavations at Çatal Hüyük: Second preliminary report, 1962, Anatolian Studies 13: pl. VI: b; Mellaart, J. (1964) Excavations at Çatal Hüyük: Third preliminary report, 1963, Anatolian Studies 14: pls II: c, IV: a, XIII: b, XIX: a, XXIV: a; XXIV: b
Fig. 4.8: 1: Reproduced courtesy of Badisches Landesmuseum Karlsruhe and Nig˘ de Museum from Badischen Landesmuseum Karlsruhe (ed.) 2007 Vor 12.00 Jahren in Anatolien: Die ältesten Monumente der Menschheit, p. 253. Konrad Theiss Verlag GmbH: Stuttgart. Fig. 4.8: 2: Reproduced courtesy of the Çatalhöyük Research Project from Hodder, I. (2006) The Leopard’s Tale: Revealing the Mysteries of Çatalhöyük. London: Thames & Hudson, fig. 99.
xi
A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S
Fig. 5.27: Reproduced courtesy of Hermann Müller-Karpe (1974) from his Handbuch der Vorgeschichte. Bd. 3, Kupferzeit. Munich: Beck.
xii