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3.When was the first fingerprint classification worked out?

4.Why is fingerprinting the best means of identification?

5.Who may give help in obtaining latent prints?

6.Is forgery of fingerprints possible?

7.How can a forged fingerprint be detected?

GLOSSARY 1. degree – ученая степень

Associate [əˈsəʊʃieɪt] - низшая степень профессионального образования

Bachelor’s degree [ˈbætʃələr dɪˈɡriː] - степень бакалавра Master’s degree [ˈmɑːstər dɪˈɡriː] - степень магистра

MSFS~ (Master of Sciences in Forensic Science) [ˈmɑːstə(r) əv

ˈsaɪənsɪnfəˈrenzɪksaɪəns] - степень магистра в области судебной экспертизы

Law degree [lɔːdɪˈɡriː] – степень в области юриспруденции

Undergraduate [ˌʌndəˈɡrædjuət]- степень бакалавра to earn a degree[tə ɜːn eɪ dɪˈɡriː] – заработать степень

to pursue a degree [tə pəˈsjuː eɪdɪˈɡriː] – стремиться получить ученую степень

2. forensic science - юр. судебная наука, криминалистика

Forensic science laboratory [fəˈrenzɪkˈsaɪəns ləˈbɒrətri]- лабо-

ратория судебно-медицинской экспертизы

Forensic science Center [fəˈrenzɪkˈsaɪənsˈsentər]-экспертно-

криминалистический центр

Forensic science Foundation [fəˈrenzɪk saɪəns faʊnˈdeɪʃn]-

фонд судебных экспертиз

Office of Forensic Sciences [ˈɒfɪs əv fəˈrenzɪk ˈsaɪənses]- экс-

пертно-криминалистическое бюро

3. Forensics - криминалистика; судебная медицина

Computer Forensics [kəmˈpjuːtər fəˈrenzɪks]-компьютерно-

техническая экспертиза

Forensics analyst [fəˈrenzɪks ˈæn.ə.lɪst] - эксперт-

криминалист

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Internet Forensics [ˈɪntənet fəˈrenzɪks] - криминалистическая компьютерная экспертиза следов пребывания в Интернете

Windows Forensics [ˈwɪn.dəʊ fəˈrenzɪks] - электронная кри-

миналистическая экспертиза данных под операционной системой

Windows

4. forensic - судебный; аналитический

~accounting expert examination [əˈkaʊntɪŋ ˈekspɜːt

ɪɡˌzæmɪˈneɪʃn]- судебно-бухгалтерская экспертиза ~analysis [əˈnæləsɪs] - криминалистический анализ

~anthropologist [ˌænθrəˈpɒlədʒɪst] - судебно-медицинский антрополог

~audit [ˈɔː.dɪt] - судебно-бухгалтерская экспертиза ~engineer [ˌendʒɪˈnɪər] - инженер в области криминалистики

~document examination [ˈdɒkjumənt ɪɡˌzæmɪˈneɪʃn]- судеб-

ная экспертиза документов

~expert [ˈekspɜːt] - судебный эксперт

~expert institution [ˈekspɜːtˌ ɪnstɪˈtjuːʃn]- судебно-экспертное учреждение

~facial reconstruction [ˈfeɪʃəlˌriːkənˈstrʌkʃən] - судебно-

экспертная реконструкция лица

~information [ˌɪnfəˈmeɪʃn] - данные для экспертного анализа ~laboratory [ləˈbɒrətri] - лаборатория судебной экспертизы ~pathology [pəˈθɒlədʒi] - судебная патологоанатомия

~photography [fəˈtɒɡrəfi] - судебная фотография

~psychiatric examination [ˌsaɪ.kiˈætr ɪkɪɡˌzæmɪˈneɪʃn] - су-

дебно-медицинская экспертиза

~psychiatric expert examination [ˌsaɪ.kiˈætrɪk ˈekspɜːt

ɪɡˌzæmɪˈneɪʃn] – судебно-психиатрическая экспертиза

~ psychiatry [saɪˈkaɪətri] - судебная психиатрия ~psychology [saɪˈkɒlədʒi] - судебная психология

~ report [rɪˈpɔːt]- заключение судебной экспертизы

~science laboratory [ˈsaɪəns ləˈbɒrətri]- лаборатория судебно-

медицинской экспертизы

~statistics [stəˈtɪstɪk]- судебная статистика

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~ testimony [ˈtestɪməni]- показания судебного эксперта

~computeranalysis [kəmˈpjuːtər əˈnæləsɪs] - компьютерно-

техническая экспертиза

5.Generalist [ˈdʒenərəlɪst]- универсал; эрудит; человек с широким образованием и кругом интересов, специалист широкого профиля; эксперт широкого профиля; (мед.) - врач общей практики; семейный врач; врач общего профиля

6.Record [ˈrekɔːd]- (юр.) учет; документ (оформленный надлежащим должностным лицом и служащий доказательством зафиксированного в нем правового акта, сделки, права); досье; отчет

forensic [fəˈren.zɪk] ~ - заключение судебного эксперта

7. Sample [ˈsɑːmpl]- образец, проба blood [blʌd] ~ - образец крови

by [baɪ] ~ - по образцу

collect [kəˈlekt] ~s - собирать пробы describe [dɪˈskraɪb] а ~ - описать образец handle [ˈhændl] а ~ - обращаться с образцом process [ˈprəʊses] а ~ - обработать пробу store [stɔːr] ~s - хранить образцы

contamination of the [kənˈtæmɪneɪtion əv ðə]~ - загрязнение пробы

origin of the [ˈɒrɪdʒɪn əv ðə] ~ - источник происхождения пробы

8.Technician [tekˈnɪʃən]- лицо среднего технического

персонала

engineering [ˌendʒɪˈnɪərɪŋ] ~ - инженерно-технический ра-

ботник

evidence [ˈevɪdəns]~ - технический персонал по работе с вещественными доказательствами

9.Technique [tekˈniːk]- способ, метод, методика

classification [ˌklæsɪfɪˈkeɪʃən] ~s - классификационные ме-

тоды

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criminalistics [ˈkrɪmɪnlistik] ~s - методы криминалистиче-

ской экспертизы

microscopic examining [ˌmaɪkrəˈskɒpɪkɪɡˈzæmɪn] ~s - мето-

ды микроскопического исследования

psycholinguistics [ˈsaɪkəʊlɪŋˈɡwɪstɪks] ~s - методы психо-

лингвистического анализа

SUPPLEMENTARY READING

FINGERPRINT

The highly individual patterns of the ridges are constant for the whole of life and cannot be altered except by the destruction of the skin, but with the growth of fresh skin, the original pattern returns.

Here is the table which lays down a rule of ridge counts as appli-

It is a general belief that most criminals wear gloves; in actual practice a surprising number of them fail to do so.

There are three main classes of chains impressions, the most important being the latent print. This is generally invisible to the naked eye and is generally made by the finger ball which impresses the papillary lines on an object with the aid of small amounts of sweat, body grease, and dirt. If the hands are very clean and cold, latent prints are unlikely to be made on any but good surfaces such as glass.

The second class comprises visible prints which need little explanation, for here dirt, blood, etc., on the fingertip will enable the print to be made. Prints of the type are infrequently found and they could be the result of haste or inattention.

A third class is the plastic print where a negative cast of the print is made on a so-called plastic object.

The life of the impression is variable and is governed by various factors, but given a hard protected surface unlikely to be touched, a print is almost permanent.

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If the visible print cannot be wholly or partially removed to the place of examination, photography is the first answer. Once the record is made, it then becomes the requisite of the expert.

The latent print has a variety of techniques, applicable to the medium under examination. Dusting for prints is the automatic prerequisite in the search for latent prints. Generally speaking, the use of an appropriate powder for development comes first, and in theory the sort of powder used is not important providing it is fine-grained in quality. A print on white objects, for example, would be dusted with black powder. On dark objects white powder is used.

The possibility that the weapons of weapons of science can be turned against itself by the forging of fingerprints cannot be discounted since this factor arises every now and again. At least forgery is of theoretical importance.

To make a facsimile of a fingerprint for some purpose would not be difficult, but it becomes a very different matter when it is put into practical use as a forgery.

It is certainly possible to make a fingerprint by means of a copy executed in rubber, for example, and get from it a visible print, but the forged fingerprint does not stand up to expert examination. Even if it were possible, it is easily detectable with the use of a good hand-lens when the ridges show up at once as artificial. In brief, a forgery cannot be achieved in such a manner that it will successfully pass the examination of a dactyloscopic expert. The chief weapon against such attempts at deceit is, basically the photographic enlargement.

And now do the following tasks:

1.Say how many parts this text can be divided into.

2.Give the contents of each part in 1 – 2 phrases.

3.Speak on the classification of imprints in the USA.

4.Speak on the problem of forgery of fingerprints.

In computer science, a fingerprinting algorithm is a procedure that maps an arbitrarily large data item (such as a computer file) to a much shorter bit string, its fingerprint, that uniquely identifies the original data for all practical purposes just as human fingerprints uniquely identify people for practical purposes. This fingerprint may be used for data deduplication purposes.

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Fingerprints are typically used to avoid the comparison and transmission of bulky data. For instance, a web browser or proxy server can efficiently check whether a remote file has been modified, by fetching only its fingerprint and comparing it with that of the previously fetched copy.

Fingerprint functions may be seen as high-performance hash functions used to uniquely identify substantial blocks of data where cryptographic hash functions may be unnecessary. Audio fingerprint algorithms should not be confused with this type of fingerprint function.

Virtual uniqueness

To serve its intended purposes, a fingerprinting algorithm must be able to capture the identity of a file with virtual certainty. In other words, the probability of a collision — two files yielding the same fingerprint — must be negligible, compared to the probability of other unavoidable causes of fatal errors (such as the system being destroyed by war or by a meteorite): say, 10−20 or less.

This requirement is somewhat similar to that of a checksum function, but is much more stringent. To detect accidental data corruption or transmission errors, it is sufficient that the checksums of the original file and any corrupted version will differ with near certainty, given some statistical model for the errors. In typical situations, this goal is easily achieved with 16or 32-bit checksums. In contrast, file fingerprints need to be at least 64-bit long to guarantee virtual uniqueness in large file systems (see birthday attack).

When proving the above requirement, one must take into account that files are generated by highly non-random processes that create complicated dependencies among files. For instance, in a typical business network, one usually finds many pairs or clusters of documents that differ only by minor edits or other slight modifications. A good fingerprinting algorithm must ensure that such "natural" processes generate distinct fingerprints, with the desired level of certainty.

Compounding

Computer files are often combined in various ways, such as concatenation (as in archive files) or symbolic inclusion (as with the C

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preprocessor's #include directive). Some fingerprinting algorithms allow the fingerprint of a composite file to be computed from the fingerprints of its constituent parts. This "compounding" property may be useful in some applications, such as detecting when a program needs to be recompiled.

Fingerprinting algorithms Rabin's algorithm

Rabin's fingerprinting algorithm is the prototype of the class. It is fast and easy to implement, allows compounding, and comes with a mathematically precise analysis of the probability of collision. Namely, the probability of two strings r and s yielding the same w-bit fingerprint does not exceed max, where denotes the length of r in bits. The algorithm requires the previous choice of a w-bit internal "key", and this guarantee holds as long as the strings r and s are chosen without knowledge of the key.

Rabin's method is not secure against malicious attacks. An adversarial agent can easily discover the key and use it to modify files without changing their fingerprint.

Cryptographic hash functions

Mainstream cryptographic grade hash functions generally can serve as high-quality fingerprint functions, are subject to intense scrutiny from cryptanalysts, and have the advantage that they are believed to be safe against malicious attacks.

A drawback of cryptographic hash algorithms such as MD5 and SHA is that they take considerably longer to execute than Rabin's fingerprint algorithm. They also lack proven guarantees on the collision probability. Some of these algorithms, notably MD5, are no longer recommended for secure fingerprinting. They are still useful for error checking, where purposeful data tampering isn't a primary concern.

Fingerprinting and Watermarking for Relational Databases Fingerprinting and digital watermarking for relational databases

emerged as candidate solutions to provide copyright protection, tamper detection, traitor tracing, and maintaining integrity of relational data. Many techniques have been proposed in the literature to address these purposes. A survey of the current state-of-the-art and a classification of the different approaches according to their intent, the way they express the fingerprint/watermark, the cover type, the granularity level, and their verifiability, is available.

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Application examples

NIST distributes a software reference library, the American National Software Reference Library, that uses cryptographic hash functions to fingerprint files and map them to software products. The Hash Keeper database, maintained by the National Drug Intelligence Center, is a repository of fingerprints of "known to be good" and "known to be bad" computer files, for use in law enforcement applications (e.g. analyzing the contents of seized disk drives).

Biometrics are the measurable biological (anatomical and physiological) or behavioral characteristics used for identification of an individual. Fingerprints are a common biometric modality, but others include things like DNA, irises, voice patterns, palm prints, and facial patterns.

Over the years, biometrics has been incredibly useful to the FBI and its partners in the law enforcement and intelligence communi- ties—not only to authenticate an individual’s identity (you are who are say you are), but more importantly, to figure out who someone is (by a fingerprint left on a murder weapon or a bomb, for example), typically by scanning a database of records for a match.

The FBI has long been a leader in biometrics. We’ve used various forms of biometric identification since our earliest days, including assuming responsibility for managing the national fingerprint collection in 1924. More recently, the Bureau’s Science and Technology Branch created the Biometric Center of Excellence (BCOE) to strengthen our ability to combat crime and terrorism with state-of-the- art biometrics technology. In addition to the BCOE, our Criminal Justice Services Division—with its vast repositories of fingerprints and biographical data—is the FBI’s natural focus for identity management activities. However, important additional biometrics-related work is being undertaken by the FBI Laboratory, such as DNA activities, while voice and face recognition initiatives are being pursued in our Operational Technology Division.

Why Fingerprint Identification?

Fingerprints offer a reliable means of personal identification. That is the essential explanation for fingerprints having replaced other methods of establishing the identities of criminals reluctant to admit previous arrests.

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The science of fingerprint Identification stands out among all other forensic sciences for many reasons, including the following:

Has served governments worldwide for over 100 years to provide accurate identification of criminals. No two fingerprints have ever been found alike in many billions of human and automated computer comparisons. Fingerprints are the very basis for criminal history foundation at every police agency on earth.

Established the first forensic professional organization, the International Association for Identification (IAI), in 1915.

Established the first professional certification program for forensic scientists, the IAI's Certified Latent Print Examiner (CLPE) program (in 1977), issuing certification to those meeting stringent criteria and revoking certification for serious errors such as erroneous identifications.

Remains the most commonly used forensic evidence worldwide - in most jurisdictions fingerprint examination cases match or outnumber all other forensic examination casework combined.

Continues to expand as the premier method for identifying persons, with tens of thousands of persons added to fingerprint repositories daily in America alone.

Worldwide, fingerprints harvested from crime "scenes lead to more suspects and generate more evidence in court than all other forensic laboratory techniques combined. 2"

Other visible human characteristics such as facial features tend to change with age, but fingerprints are relatively persistent. Barring injuries or surgery causing deep scarring, or diseases such as leprosy damaging the formative layers of friction ridge skin, finger and palm print features have never been shown to move about or change their unit relationship throughout the life of a person (injuries, scarring and diseases tend to exhibit telltale indicators of unnatural change).

In earlier civilizations, branding or maiming were used to mark the criminal for what he or she was. The thief was deprived of the hand which committed the thievery. Ancient Romans employed the tattoo needle to identify and prevent desertion of mercenary soldiers from their units.

Before the mid-1800s, law enforcement officers with extraordinary visual memories, so-called "camera eyes," identified previously arrested offenders by sight alone. Photography lessened the burden on

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memory but was not the answer to the criminal identification problem. Personal appearances change.

Around 1870, French anthropologist Alphonse Bertillon devised a system to measure and record the dimensions of certain bony parts of the body. These measurements were reduced to a formula which, theoretically, would apply only to one person and would not change during his/her adult life.

The Bertillon System was generally accepted for thirty years. But the anthropometric measurement system never recovered from the events of 1903, when a man named Will West was sentenced to the US Penitentiary at Leavenworth, Kansas. It was discovered there was already a prisoner at the penitentiary, whose Bertillon measurements were nearly the same, and his name was William West.

Upon investigation, there were indeed two men who looked very similar. Their names were William and Will West. Their Bertillon measurements were close enough to identify them as the same person. However, a fingerprint comparison quickly and correctly identified them as two different people. (Per prison records publicized years later, the West men were apparently identical twin brothers and each had a record of correspondence with the same immediate family relatives.)

Prehistoric

Ancient artifacts including carvings similar to friction ridge skin have been discovered in many places throughout the world. Picture writing of a hand with ridge patterns was discovered in Nova Scotia. In ancient Babylon, fingerprints were used on clay tablets for business transactions.

BC 200s - China

Chinese records from the 221-206 BC Qin Dynasty include details about using handprints as evidence during burglary investigations.

Clay seals bearing friction ridge impressions were used during both the Qin and Han Dynasties (221 BC - 220 AD)

Chinese Clay Seal

AD 1400s - Persia

The 14th century Persian book "Jaamehol-Tawarikh" (Universal History), attributed to Khajeh Rashiduddin Fazlollah Hamadani (1247-1318), includes comments about the practice of identifying persons from their fingerprints.

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