Лидовский В.В., Теория информации
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97
pRILOVENIE d. |LEMENTY TEORII ^ISEL
kANONI^ESKIM RAZLOVENIEM ^ISLA m NAZYWAETSQ RAZLOVENIE EGO NA PROSTYE SOMNOVITELI W WIDE m = p1 1 p2 2 pkk , GDE p1; p2; : : : ; pk | WSE RAZLI^NYE PROSTYE DELITELI ^ISLA m, A 1; 2; : : : ; k | CELYE POLOVITELXNYE ^ISLA.
fUNKCIEJ |JLERA NAZYWAETSQ, OTOBRAVENIE ': N ! N,
'(m) = p1 1 1(p1 1)p2 2 1(p2 1) pkk 1(pk 1);
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KANONI^ESKOE RAZLOVENIE m. |
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3 |
2 2 |
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1)3 (3 |
1) = 2 |
2 = 4, |
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nAPRIMER |
'(2) = 1, '(12) = '(2 3) = 2 (2 |
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'(1000) = '(2 5 ) = 2 5 4 = 4 25 4 = 400. |
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~ISLA m I n NAZYWA@TSQ WZAIMNO PROSTYMI, ESLI U NIH NET OB]IH |
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DELITELEJ BOLX[IH 1, T.E. nod(m; n) = 1. |
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fUNKCIQ |JLERA OT ^ISLA m RAWNA ^ISLU ^ISEL MENX[IH m I WZA- |
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IMNO PROSTYH S m [7]. |
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[7]. |
dLQ WZAIMNO PROSTYH m I n WERNO RAWENSTWO '(mn) = '(m)'(n) |
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~ISLOn PRIMITIWNYH MNOGO^LENOW STEPENI n NAD POLEM (Z2; +; ) |
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RAWNO '(2 |
1)=n [12]. |
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tEOREMA |JLERA-fERMA [7]. dLQ WZAIMNO PROSTYH m I a IMEET ME- |
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STO RAWENSTWO a'(m) 1 (mod m). |
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dLQ RE[ENIQ URAWNENIQ ax 1 |
(mod m), GDE nod(a; m) = 1, MOV- |
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NO ISPOLXZOWATX TEOREMU |JLERA-fERMA, T.E. x a'(m) 1 |
(mod m), NO |
\TO WESXMA TRUDOEMKIJ SPOSOB. pOLU^IM RE[ENIQ ISKOMOGO URAWNENIQ ^EREZ FORMULU DLQ RE[ENIQ \KWIWALENTNOGO URAWNENIQ ax my = 1.
pO ALGORITMU eWKLIDA DLQ POLU^ENIQ nod DWUH ZADANNYH ^ISEL NUVNO ODNO ^ISLO DELITX NA DRUGOE, ZATEM DELITX DELITELX NA POLU^A- EMYJ OSTATOK DO TEH, POKA OSTATOK NE STANET RAWNYM NUL@. pOSLEDNIJ BOLX[IJ NULQ OSTATOK BUDET ISKOMYM nod.
dLQ ^ISEL a I m POSLEDOWATELXNOSTX [AGOW ALGORITMA eWKLIDA WYGLQDIT KAK
a = mq0 + a1; m = a1q1 + a2; a1 = a2q2 + a3;
: : :
an 2 = an 1qn 1 + an; an 1 = anqn;
a
GDE a1; a2; : : : ; an | OSTATKI. rAZLOVENIE m W CEPNU@ DROBX PO POSLE-
98
DOWATELXNOSTI ^ASTNYH q0; : : : ; qn IMEET WID |
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a1 |
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1
:
1
q1 +
1 q2 + q3 +
oBOZNA^IM ZA Pk=Qk DROBX, POLU^AEMU@ IZ PRIWEDENNOJ CEPNOJ DROBI OTBRASYWANIEM ^LENOW S INDEKSAMI, BOLX[IMI k. nAPRIMER, P0=Q0 = q0, P1=Q1 = q0+1=q1 = (q0q1+1)=q1 I T.D. ~ISLITELX, Pk, I ZNAMENATELX, Qk, MOVNO WY^ISLQTX REKURRENTNO PO SLEDU@]IM FORMULAM:
P 2 = 0; P 1 = 1; Q 2 = 1; Q 1 = 0;
PRI k > 0 Pk = qkPk 1 + Pk 2; Qk = qkQk 1 + Qk 2:
pO OPREDELENI@ Pn = a I Qn = m. kROME TOGO,
Fn = PnQn 1 Pn 1Qn = (qnPn 1+Pn 2)Qn 1 Pn 1(qnQn 1+Qn 2) = = Pn 1Qn 2 +Pn 2Qn 1 = Fn 1 = = Fn 2 = = ( 1)n+1F 1 = = ( 1)n+1(P 1Q 2 P 2Q 1) = ( 1)n+1
ILI
( 1)n+1PnQn 1 Pn 1( 1)n+1Qn = 1;
^TO OZNA^AET
a( 1)n+1Qn 1 m( 1)n+1Pn 1 = 1; T.E. x = ( 1)n 1Qn 1 I y = ( 1)n 1Pn 1.
pROCESS POLU^ENIQ ^ISLITELEJ I ZNAMENATELEJ UDOBNO OFORMITX W WIDE TABLICY:
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Q0 Q1 Q2 Qn 1 Qn. |
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tAKIM OBRAZOM, KORNI URAWNENIQ ax 1 (mod m) WY^ISLQ@TSQ |
PO FORMULE x = ( 1)n 1Qn 1. |
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pRIMER. rE[ITX URAWNENIE 1181x 1 |
(mod 1290816). sNA^ALA PO |
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ALGORITMU eWKLIDA POLU^AETSQ SLEDU@]AQ CEPO^KA SOOTNO[ENIJ: |
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1181 |
= 1290816 0 + 1181; |
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1290816 |
= 1181 |
1092 |
+ 1164; |
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1181 |
= 1164 |
1 + 17; |
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1164 |
= 17 68 + 8; |
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17 |
= 8 |
2 + 1; |
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= 1 |
8: |
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99
zATEM SOSTAWLQETSQ TABLICA DLQ WY^ISLENIQ Q5: |
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1092 |
1 |
68 |
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1 0 1 |
1092 |
1093 |
75416 |
151925 |
1290816. |
tAKIM OBRAZOM, ISKOMYJ x RAWEN 151925.
gIPOTEZA. zADA^A RAZLOVENIQ CELOGO ^ISLA S ZADANNYM ^ISLOM RAZRQDOW NA MNOVITELI QWLQETSQ TRUDNORE[AEMOJ*.
nA SEGODNQ[NIJ DENX SU]ESTWU@T WESXMA BYSTRYE ALGORITMY DLQ PROWERKI DANNOGO ^ISLA NA PROSTOTU, NO DLQ RAZLOVENIQ 200-ZNA^NOGO ^ISLA NA MNOVITELI LU^[IM SOWREMENNYM KOMPX@TERAM PO LU^[IM SOWREMENNYM ALGORITMAM MOVET POTREBOWATXSQ MILLIARDY LET.
|TA GIPOTEZA LEVIT W OSNOWE METODOW dIFFI-hELLMANA.
* zADA^A NAZYWAETSQ TRUDNORE[AEMOJ, ESLI WREMQ EE RE[ENIQ ZAWISIT OT OB_EMA WHODNYH DANNYH PO \KSPONENCIALXNOMU ZAKONU I NE MOVET BYTX SWEDENO K POLINOMIALXNOMU
100
pRILOVENIE e. iSPOLXZUEMYE OBOZNA^ENIQ
P (A) | WEROQTNOSTX SOBYTIQ A.
P (A=B) | WEROQTNOSTX SOBYTIQ A, ESLI IZWESTNO, ^TO SOBYTIE B PROIZO[LO. uSLOWNAQ WEROQTNOSTX.
P (A; B) | WEROQTNOSTX ODNOWREMENNOGO NASTUPLENIQ SOBYTIJ A I
B.
N | MNOVESTWO NATURALXNYH ^ISEL. Z2 | MNOVESTWO IZ 0 I 1, f0; 1g.
R | MNOVESTWO WE]ESTWENNYH ^ISEL. R2 | ^ISLOWAQ PLOSKOSTX.
i xi | SUMMA xi PO WSEM WOZMOVNYM ZNA^ENIQM INDEKSA i.
i I jP. k |
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| SUMMA xij PO WSEM WOZMOVNYM ZNA^ENIQM PAR INDEKSOW |
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Pi;j |
xij |
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Cn | BINOMIALXNYJ KO\FFICIENT W FORMULE BINOMA nX@TONA |
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Cnkpkqn k; Cnk |
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(p + q)n = |
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k!(n k)! |
k=0
ILI ^ISLO WOZMOVNYH RAZNYH WYBOROK k \LEMENTOW IZ MNOVESTWA IZ n
\LEMENTOW, ^ISLO SO^ETANIJ IZ n PO k. |
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dim(X) | RAZMERNOSTX WEKTORA X, ^ISLO KOMPONENT X. |
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#X | KOLI^ESTWO \LEMENTOW W MNOVESTWE X, MO]NOSTX X. |
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nod(n; m) | NAIBOLX[IJ OB]IJ DELITELX n I m. |
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nok(n; m) | NAIMENX[EE OB]EE KRATNOE n I m. |
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a b |
(mod n) | ^ISLA a I b SRAWNIMY PO MODUL@ n, T. E. RAZNOSTX |
a b DELITSQ NA n NACELO.
f: A ! B | FUNKCIQ f S OBLASTX@ OPREDELENIQ A I OBLASTX@, SODERVA]EJ WSE ZNA^ENIQ f, B.
f g | KOMPOZICIQ FUNKCIJ f I g, T.E. (f g)(x) = f(g(x)).
(X; +; ) | POLE NAD MNOVESTWOM X S ADDITIWNOJ OPERACIEJ + I MULXTIPLIKATIWNOJ OPERACIEJ .
101
pRILOVENIE v. sPISOK LITERATURY
1.bIRKGOF g., bARTI t. sOWREMENNAQ PRIKLADNAQ ALGEBRA | m.: mIR, 1976.
2.bLEJHER r. tEORIQ I PRAKTIKA KODOW, KONTROLIRU@]IH O[IBKI | m.: mIR, 1986.
3.bORN g. fORMATY DANNYH | kIEW: tORGOWO-IZDATELXSKOE B@RO
BHV, 1995.
4.bUK^IN l. w., bEZRUKIJ `. l. dISKOWAQ PODSISTEMA IBM-SOW- MESTIMYH PERSONALXNYH KOMPX@TEROW | m.: FIRMA \mikap", 1993.
5.wINER n. kIBERNETIKA | m.: nAUKA, 1983.
6.wODOLAZKIJ w. kOMMER^ESKIE SISTEMY [IFROWANIQ: OSNOWNYE ALGORITMY I IH REALIZACIQ //\mONITOR" 6{8/92.
7.wOROBXEW n. n. pRIZNAKI DELIMOSTI | m.: nAUKA, 1988.
8.gLU[KOW w.m. oSNOWY BEZBUMAVNOJ INFORMATIKI | m.: nAUKA, 1987.
9.dVORDV f. oSNOWY KIBERNETIKI | m.: rADIO I sWQZX, 1984.
10.kENCL t. fORMATY FAJLOW Internet | spB: pITER, 1997.
11.nELXSON m. wERIFIKACIQ FAJLOW //\vURNAL D-RA dOBBA" 1/93.
12.nE^AEW w. i. |LEMENTY KRIPTOGRAFII | m.: wYS[AQ [KOLA, 1999.
13.mASTR@KOW d. aLGORITMY SVATIQ INFORMACII //\mONITOR" 7/93{6/94.
14.pITERSON r., u\LDON |. kODY, ISPRAWLQ@]IE O[IBKI | m.: mIR, 1976.
15.pLOTNIKOW w. aLGORITMI^ESKAQ REALIZACIQ KRIPTOGRAFI^ESKOGO METODA RSA //\mONITOR" 2/94.
16.pERSPEKTIWY RAZWITIQ WY^ISLITELXNOJ TEHNIKI: W 11 KN.: sPRAWO^NOE POSOBIE/pOD RED. `. m. sMIRNOWA. kN. 9. | m.: wYS[AQ [KOLA, 1989.
17.tITCE u., {ENK k. pOLUPROWODNIKOWAQ SHEMOTEHNIKA | m.: mIR, 1983.
18.~ISAR i., k•ERNER q. tEORIQ INFORMACII | m.: mIR, 1985.
19.{ENNON k. rABOTY PO TEORII INFORMACII I KIBERNETIKI | m., iZDATELXSTWO INOSTRANNOJ LITERATURY, 1963.
20.qGLOM a., qGLOM i. wEROQTNOSTX I INFORMACIQ | m.: nAUKA, 1973.
21.wWEDENIE W KRIPTOGRAFI@ /pOD OB]EJ REDAKCIEJ w. w. q]ENKO. | m.: mcnmo: "~ErO", 2000.
22.HTML 4.01 Speci cation /Edited by D. Ragget, A. L. Hors, I. Jacobs | W3C: http://www.w3c.org/TR/REC-html401-19991224, 1999.
102
23.The Unicode Standard, Version 3.0 | Addison Wesley Longman Publisher, 2000, ISBN 0-201-61633-5.
103
pRILOVENIE z. pREDMETNYJ UKAZATELX
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bzip2 |
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CGI |
79 |
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CP1251 |
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CP866 |
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CRC |
68 |
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DAC (D/A) |
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FM |
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gzip |
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HTML |
77, 78 |
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HTTP |
78 |
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ISDN |
9 |
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42 |
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LZW |
37, 40 |
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47 |
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43 |
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42 |
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UCS |
94 |
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Unicode |
76, 88, 91, 94 |
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URI, URL |
78 |
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UTF |
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WWW |
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awm |
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ADAPTIWNYJ ALGORITM SVATIQ IN- |
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FORMACII |
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ALGORITM eWKLIDA |
98 |
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ANALOGOWAQ INFORMACIQ |
5 |
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ARIFMETI^ESKOE KODIROWANIE |
24 |
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acp |
6 |
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BAJT (byte) |
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BINARNYE FAJLY |
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BIT (bit) |
7 |
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BLO^NYE KODY |
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BOD (baud) |
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b~h-KODY |
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WES DWOI^NOGO SLOWA |
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WZAIMNO PROSTYE ^ISLA |
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GIBRIDNYE WY^ISLITELXNYE MA[I- |
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NY |
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GRUPPOWOJ KOD |
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DWOI^NYJ (m; n)-KOD |
49 |
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| SIMMETRI^NYJ KANAL |
49 |
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DEKODIROWANIE |
47 |
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DISKRETNAQ INFORMACIQ |
5 |
|
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DREWOWIDNYE KODY |
52 |
|
|
|||||
EMKOSTX KANALA SWQZI |
8, 45 |
|
||||||
ZADERVKA SIGNALA WO WREMENI |
44 |
|||||||
ZAPISX |
S |
GRUPPOWYM |
KODIROWANIM |
|||||
(RLL) |
47 |
|
|
|
|
|
||
INFORMACIQ |
8, 10 |
|
|
|
|
|||
| ANALOGOWAQ |
5 |
|
|
|
|
|||
| DISKRETNAQ |
5 |
|
|
|
|
|||
| NEPRERYWNAQ |
5 |
|
|
|
|
|||
| SEMANTI^ESKAQ |
18 |
|
|
|
||||
| CIFROWAQ |
5 |
|
|
|
|
|
||
KANAL BEZ \[UMOW" |
45 |
|
|
|||||
| INFORMACIONNYJ |
44 |
|
|
|||||
| SWQZI |
8 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
104
| | DISKRETNYJ |
45 |
|
|
|||
| | NEPRERYWNYJ |
45 |
|
|
|||
KANONI^ESKOE RAZLOVENIE ^ISLA 98 |
||||||
KWAZISOWER[ENNYJ KOD |
60, 62 |
|||||
KIBERNETIKA |
2 |
|
|
|
|
|
KOD BLO^NYJ |
52 |
|
|
|
|
|
| gOLEQ |
66 |
|
|
|
|
|
| GRUPPOWOJ |
57 |
|
|
|
|
|
| DREWOWIDNYJ |
52 |
|
|
|
||
| KWAZISOWER[ENNYJ 60, 62 |
|
|||||
| LINEJNYJ |
56 |
|
|
|
|
|
| OPTIMALXNYJ |
60 |
|
|
|
||
| POLINOMIALXNYJ |
65 |
|
|
|||
| POSLEDOWATELXNYJ |
52 |
|
||||
| SOWER[ENNYJ |
60 |
|
|
|
||
| S PROWERKOJ ^ETNOSTI |
48, 50 |
|||||
| | TROJNYM POWTORENIEM |
49, 51 |
|||||
| h\MMINGA |
60 |
|
|
|
|
|
| CIKLI^ESKIJ 66 |
|
|
|
|||
KODIROWANIE |
8, 47 |
|
|
|
||
| LZ77 |
34 |
|
|
|
|
|
| LZ78 |
36 |
|
|
|
|
|
| LZSS |
35 |
|
|
|
|
|
| LZW |
37 |
|
|
|
|
|
| ARIFMETI^ESKOE |
24 |
|
|
|||
| | ADAPTIWNOE |
32 |
|
|
|||
| dIFFI-hELLMANA |
71, 100 |
|
||||
| POMEHOZA]ITNOE |
48 |
|
|
|||
| PREFIKSNOE |
17 |
|
|
|
||
| hAFFMENA |
22 |
|
|
|
|
|
| | ADAPTIWNOE |
26 |
|
|
|||
| {ENNONA-f\NO |
20, 22 |
|
||||
KODIROWKA gost |
94 |
|
|
|
||
KODY S ISPRAWLENIEM O[IBOK |
50 |
|||||
| | OBNARUVENIEM O[IBOK |
50 |
|||||
koi-7 |
95 |
|
|
|
|
|
koi-8 |
94 |
|
|
|
|
|
KOLI^ESTWO INFORMACII |
10 |
|
||||
KOMPX@TER 7 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
KOMPX@TERNYJ [RIFT |
76 |
|
KONTROLXNAQ SUMMA |
51 |
|
|
|
||||
KRIPTOGRAFIQ |
|
69 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
LIDER SMEVNOGO KLASSA |
58 |
|
|
|||||
LINEJNYE KODY |
56 |
|
|
|
|
|||
LINII SWQZI |
44 |
|
|
|
|
|
||
LOGI^ESKAQ RAZMETKA TEKSTA |
76 |
|||||||
MATRI^NOE KODIROWANIE |
56 |
|
|
|||||
METOD BLOKIROWANIQ |
20 |
|
|
|
||||
MODULQCIQ ^ASTOTNAQ |
45 |
|
|
|||||
NEPRERYWNAQ INFORMACIQ 5 |
|
|||||||
NERAWENSTWO (WERHNQQ GRANICA) |
||||||||
wAR[AMOWA-gILXBERTA |
55 |
|||||||
| (NIVNQQ GRANICA) h\MMINGA |
55 |
|||||||
NERASKRYWAEMYJ [IFR |
71 |
|
|
|||||
NIVNQQ GRANICA pLOTKINA |
56 |
|
||||||
OBRATNAQ |
TEOREMA |
O |
KODIROWANII |
|||||
PRI NALI^II POMEH |
48 |
|
|
|||||
OB]AQ SHEMA PEREDA^I INFORMA- |
||||||||
CII |
9 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
OPTIMALXNYJ KOD |
60 |
|
|
|
||||
OSNOWNAQ TEOREMA O KODIROWANII PRI |
||||||||
NALI^II POMEH |
48 |
|
|
|
||||
| | | | | OTSUTSTWII POMEH |
20 |
|||||||
OSNOWNOJ FAKT TEORII PEREDA^I IN- |
||||||||
FORMACII |
48 |
|
|
|
|
|
||
POLINOMIALXNOE KODIROWANIE |
64 |
|||||||
POLINOMIALXNYJ KOD |
65 |
|
|
|||||
POSLEDOWATELXNOSTX fIBONA^^I |
46 |
|||||||
POSLEDOWATELXNYE KODY |
52 |
|
|
|||||
PREFIKSNOE KODIROWANIE |
17 |
|
||||||
PRIMITIWNYJ MNOGO^LEN |
67, 98 |
|||||||
PROPUSKNAQ SPOSOBNOSTX (EMKOSTX) |
||||||||
KANALA |
8, 45 |
|
|
|
|
|
||
PROCEDURNAQ RAZMETKA TEKSTA |
76 |
|||||||
RAZMETKA TEKSTA (markup). 76 |
|
|||||||
RASSTOQNIE h\MMINGA |
52 |
|
|
|||||
RAS[IRENNYJ ASCII (ASCII+) |
4 |
|||||||
REPITER |
44 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
SISTEMATI^ESKIE |
POMEHOZA]ITNYE |
|||||||
KODY |
49 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
105
SLOWARNYE METODY SVATIQ |
34 |
|
|||||
SOWER[ENNYJ KOD |
60 |
|
|
|
|
||
STATISTI^ESKIE |
METODY |
SVATIQ |
|||||
34 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
STROKA O[IBOK 54 |
|
|
|
|
|||
TABLICA DEKODIROWANIQ |
58 |
|
|
||||
| KODIROWKI |
4, 76 |
|
|
|
|
||
| STILEJ |
77 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
TEG (tag) HTML |
78 |
|
|
|
|
||
TEKSTOWYE FAJLY |
76 |
|
|
|
|||
TEOREMA O WYBORKAH |
6 |
|
|
|
|||
| {ENNONA |
48 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| |JLERA-fERMA |
98 |
|
|
|
|
||
TEORIQ INFORMACII |
3 |
|
|
|
|||
UPORQDO^ENNOE BINARNOE DEREWO |
28 |
||||||
UPRAWLENIE (OSNOWNAQ KATEGORIQ KI- |
|||||||
BERNETIKI) |
3 |
|
|
|
|
||
USTROJSTWA KANALA SWQZI |
44 |
|
|||||
FIZI^ESKAQ RAZMETKA TEKSTA |
76 |
||||||
FORMALXNOE |
PREDSTAWLENIE |
ZNA- |
|||||
NIJ |
4 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
FUNKCIQ O[IBOK 50 | |JLERA 98
cap 6 cwm 7
CIKLI^ESKIE KODY 66 CIKLI^ESKIJ IZBYTO^NYJ KOD 68 CIFROWAQ INFORMACIQ 5 ^ASTOTA DISKRETIZACII 5 ^ASTOTNAQ MODULQCIQ 45
[IFR BEZ PEREDA^I KL@^EJ 71 | NERASKRYWAEMYJ 71
| PROSTOJ ZAMENY 69
| S OTKRYTYM KL@^OM 72 | | PODPISX@ 73
[IFRY dIFFI-hELLMANA 71, 100 | S KL@^EWYM SLOWOM 70 [IFRY-PERESTANOWKI 70
[UM W KANALE SWQZI 8
\LEKTRONNAQ PODPISX 74
\LEMENT TEKSTA HTML 78 \NTROPIQ 10, 11, 16
106